Comparison of key enzymes in the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, the earthworm Allolobophora chlorotica and Chironomus riparius larvae

Effects of triclosan (TCS) on fecundity, the antioxidant system, and oxidative stress-mediated gene expression in the copepod Tigriopus japonicus

Triclosan (TCS) is an antimicrobial agent that has been widely dispersed and detected in the marine environment. However, the effects of TCS in marine invertebrates are poorly understood. In this study, the effects of TCS on life cycle history (e.g. mortality and fecundity) along with cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, GSH content, antioxidant enzymatic activities, and mRNA expression levels of oxidative stress-mediated genes were measured in the copepod Tigriopus japonicus. The no observed effect concentration (NOEC) and median lethal concentration (LC50) of TCS in the adult stage were determined to be 300μg/L and 437.476μg/L, respectively, while in the nauplius stages the corresponding values were 20μg/L, and 51.76μg/L, respectively. Fecundity was significantly reduced (P<0.05) in response to TCS at 100μg/L. Concentration- and time-dependent analysis of ROS, GSH content (%), and antioxidant enzymatic activities (e.g. GST, GPx, and SOD) were significantly increased (P<0.05) in response to TCS exposure. Additionally, mRNA expression of detoxification (e.g., CYPs) and antioxidant (e.g., glutathione S-transferase-sigma isoforms, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, catalase) genes was modulated in response to TCS exposure at different concentrations over a 24h period. Our results revealed that TCS can induce reduced fecundity and oxidative stress with transcriptional regulation of oxidative stress-mediated genes with activation of the antioxidant system in the copepod T. japonicus.

Realistic mixture of illicit drugs impaired the oxidative status of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)

Illicit drugs are considered to be emerging aquatic pollutants since they are commonly found in freshwater ecosystems in the high ng L(-1) to low μg L(-1) range concentrations. Although the environmental occurrence of the most common psychoactive compounds is well known, recently some investigations showed their potential toxicity toward non-target aquatic organisms. However, to date, these studies completely neglected that organisms in the real environment are exposed to a complex mixture, which could lead to dissimilar adverse effects. The present study investigated the oxidative alterations of the freshwater bivalve Dreissena polymorpha induced by a 14-d exposure to an environmentally relevant mixture of the most common illicit drugs found in the aquatic environment, namely cocaine (50 ng L(-1)), benzoylecgonine (300 ng L(-1)), amphetamine (300 ng L(-1)), morphine (100 ng L(-1)) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (50 ng L(-1)). The total oxidant status (TOS) was measured to investigate the increase in the reactive oxygen species' levels, while the activity of antioxidant enzymes and glutathione S-transferase were measured to note the eventual imbalances between pro-oxidant and antioxidant molecules. In addition, oxidative damage was assessed by measuring the levels of lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation. Significant time-dependent increases of all the antioxidant activities were induced by the mixture. Moreover, the illicit drug mixture significantly increased the levels of carbonylated proteins and caused a slight variation in lipid peroxidation. Our results showed that a mixture of illicit drugs at realistic environmental concentrations can impair the oxidative status of the zebra mussel, posing a serious hazard to the health status of this bivalve species.

Does zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) represent the freshwater counterpart of Mytilus in ecotoxicological studies? A critical review

One of the fundamentals in the ecotoxicological studies is the need of data comparison, which can be easily reached with the help of a standardized biological model. In this context, any biological model has been still proposed for the biomonitoring and risk evaluation of freshwaters until now. The aim of this review is to illustrate the ecotoxicological studies carried out with the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha in order to suggest this bivalve species as possible reference organism for inland waters. In detail,we showed its application in biomonitoring, as well as for the evaluation of adverse effects induced by several pollutants, using both in vitro and in vivo experiments. We discussed the advantages by the use of D. polymorpha for ecotoxicological studies, but also the possible limitations due to its invasive nature.

Effects of individual and binary-combined commercial insecticides endosulfan, temephos, malathion and pirimiphos-methyl on biomarker responses in earthworm Eisenia andrei

Laboratory tests were conducted in order to investigate the effects of individual and binary-combined commercial insecticides endosulfan, temephos, malathion and pirimiphos-methyl on the earthworm Eisenia andrei. The effects of individual insecticides were determined by measuring the activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST). After exposure to studied insecticides, dose-dependent decrease in AChE activity and dose-dependent increase in CAT activity was recorded. The activity of GST was without consistent dose-response reaction, but generally the investigated insecticides caused the increase in GST activity. In order to determine the effects of binary-combined mixtures, and interactions between the components in the mixture, the relationship between effective concentration of AChE inhibition for mixture and effective concentration of AChE inhibition for each component in the mixture was investigated. The obtained results showed additive effect for mixtures endosulfan+malathion; endosulfan+pirimiphos-methyl; temephos+malathion and temephos+pirimiphos-methyl, synergistic effect for mixture endosulfan+temephos and in the case of mixture malathion+pirimiphos-methyl the antagonistic effect was indicated.

Biomarker responses in earthworm Eisenia andrei exposed to pirimiphos-methyl and deltamethrin using different toxicity tests

The effects of two widely used insecticides - organophosphate pirimiphos-methyl and pyrethroid deltamethrin - were investigated under laboratory conditions following OECD guidelines using the epigeic earthworm Eisenia andrei as the test organism. The overall aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of these pesticides on molecular biomarkers of earthworm E. andrei using the in vitro, filter paper contact and artificial soil test. In this study for the first time the equivalent concentrations of investigated pesticide applied in different tests were calculated. Although the response of measured molecular biomarkers in different toxicity tests had certain similarities, some distinct differences were also evident. Both pesticides inhibited AChE and CES activities in all three applied toxicity tests; however only in the filter paper test the hormetic effect was recorded. The artificial soil test showed that duration of the exposure significantly changed the effects of the investigated pesticides on CAT and GST activities. Namely, after the initial increase, the prolongation of exposure caused the reduction of the CAT and GST activities. Both pesticides significantly inhibited the efflux pump activity. In the artificial soil test, the significant changes in measured biomarkers after application of doses lower than doses recommended for use in the agriculture indicate that the investigated pesticides could have a harmful effect on earthworms in the context of the realistic environment.

Sub-lethal effects induced by a mixture of three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on the freshwater bivalve Dreissena polymorpha

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the sixth top-selling drugs worldwide and are commonly found in freshwater ecosystems in the high ng/l to low μg/l range. Recent studies have investigated both the acute and the chronic toxicity of single NSAIDs on different biological models, but these studies have completely neglected the fact that, in the environment, non-target organisms are exposed to mixtures of drugs that have unforeseeable toxicological behavior. This work investigated the sub-lethal effects induced by a mixture of three common NSAIDs, namely, diclofenac, ibuprofen and paracetamol, on the freshwater bivalve, the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha). The mussels were exposed to three different environmental concentrations of the mixture (Low, Mid and High). A multi-biomarker approach was used to highlight cyto-genotoxic effects and the imbalance of the oxidative status of the treated specimens. The Neutral Red Retention Assay (NRRA) was used as a biomarker of cytotoxicity, whereas the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase were measured to assess the role played by the oxidative stress enzymes. In addition, the single cell gel electrophoresis assay, the DNA Diffusion assay and the micronucleus test were used to investigate possible genotoxic effects. According to our NRRA results, each treatment was able to induce a significant cellular stress in bivalves, probably due to the raise of oxidative stress, as indicated by the alteration of enzyme activities measured in treated specimens. Moreover, the mixture induced significant enhancements of DNA fragmentation, which preluded fixed genetic damage, as highlighted by the increase of both apoptotic and micronucleated cells.

Evaluation of 4-nonylphenol in vivo exposure in Dreissena polymorpha: Bioaccumulation, steroid levels and oxidative stress

Nonylphenol (NP) represents the most critical metabolite of alkylphenols (APs) and alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs), non-ionic surfactants widely used in the formulation of domestic and industrial products. On the basis of in vitro and in vivo animal studies 4-nonylphenol (4-NP) is considered an endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC). The evidence to date indicates that mollusks are able to synthesize sex steroids from the precursor cholesterol and their endocrine pathways are theoretically susceptible to disruption. The aim of this study was to investigate the endocrine modulating potency of 4-NP in the freshwater mussel Dreissena polymorpha by looking at endogenous steroid levels in control and exposed individuals. 4-NP bioaccumulation in mussels tissues and alterations in the activity of enzymes related both to oxidative stress (catalase - CAT- and glutathione peroxidase - GPX-) and phase II metabolism (glutathione-S-transferase - GST-) were also assessed. The results highlighted a build-up of 4-NP in exposed mussels and an overall decrease of 17-beta-estradiol and testosterone levels. On the other hand this chemical at the tested concentrations does not interfere with the antioxidant defense mechanisms in D. polymorpha. The mechanisms by which 4-NP alter steroids levels are unknown and require more in-depth investigations.

Multi-biomarker approach for the evaluation of the cyto-genotoxicity of paracetamol on the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)

Paracetamol (PCM; N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)acetamide) is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic agent that is utilized in human medicine. Its use is so widespread that it is constantly being introduced into global water bodies where it reaches concentrations up to several microgL(-1). A battery of eight biomarkers was applied in the freshwater bivalve Dreissena polymorpha in order to evaluate its potential sub-lethal effect. Mussels were exposed for 96h to increasing environmental concentrations (1, 5, 10nM) of PCM. Cyto-genotoxicity was determined in mussel hemocytes by the lysosomal membrane stability (Neutral Red Retention Assay), the single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) assay, the micronucleus test (MN test) and assessments of the apoptotic frequency (DNA diffusion assay). Moreover, in order to evaluate the probable alterations to the mussels' oxidative status, measurements of the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and the detoxifying enzyme glutathione S-transferase (GST) were performed using the cytosolic fraction extracted from a pool of entire mussels. The biomarker battery demonstrated moderate cyto-genotoxicity in zebra mussel hemocytes since no primary DNA fragmentation was measured by the SCGE assay and only a slight increase in fixed DNA damage was registered by apoptotic and MN frequencies. Significant destabilization of the lysosomal membrane from baseline levels was evident at 5 and 10nM at the end of the exposures, as was a high induction capacity of the activities of CAT and GST.

A multi-biomarker assessment of the impact of the antibacterial trimethoprim on the non-target organism Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)

A battery of eight biomarkers was applied in the freshwater mussel Dreissena polymorpha to evaluate potential sub-lethal effects of the antimicrobial trimethoprim (TMP, 5-[3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl]pyrimidine-2,4-diamine). Mussels were exposed for 96 h to increasing concentrations (1, 3, 10 nM) of TMP in in vivo experiments. We determined the single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) assay, the micronucleus test (MN test), the apoptotic frequency (Halo assay) and the lysosomal membrane stability (Neutral Red Retention Assay) in mussel hemocytes. Moreover, to reveal whether the oxidative status was altered, measurements of the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and the phase II detoxifying enzyme glutathione S-transferase (GST) were performed using the cytosolic fraction extracted from a pool of entire mussels. The biomarker battery pointed out only a moderate cyto- and genotoxicity on Zebra mussel hemocytes since only a slight increase in DNA damage was registered by apoptosis induction and MN frequency, while significant differences of lysosomal membrane stability from baseline levels were measured at 3 and 10 nM at the end of exposures only. Finally, TMP seems to have a very low induction capability or even an inhibitory effect on the activities of antioxidant enzymes, but a clear significant induction on GST.

Effects of norfloxacin and butylated hydroxyanisole on the freshwater microalga Scenedesmus obliquus

The toxic effects of norfloxacin (NOR) and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) on the microalga Scenedesmus obliquus were assessed in terms of growth rate, concentration of chlorophyll a, activities of 7-ethoxyresorufin-o-dealkylases (EROD), glutathione s-transferase (GST), catalase (CAT) and total malondialdehyde content (MDA). The 96 h EC(50) was 38.49 and 11.12 mg/l for NOR and BHA, respectively. Growth of S. obliquus was affected slightly under low concentrations of BHA (<4 mg/l) and NOR (<15 mg/l) over the 96 h exposure period. With the increasing concentrations of these two compounds, growth of S. oblique decreased significantly. Growth inhibition was 82.4% at 60.0 mg/l for NOR and 60.6% at 16.0 mg/l for BHA after 96 h. A similar trend was also observed for chlorophyll alpha. NOR and BHA affected Phase I and Phase II enzyme activities differently. Upon exposure to NOR, EROD was induced at concentration <15.0 mg/l and depressed at concentrations >30 mg/l significantly. CAT and GST exhibited similar trends during the exposure period. Compared to controls, MDA content only showed high induction at high concentrations of NOR (>30 mg/l). However, EROD activity did not display any change compared to control responses during BHA exposure, whereas GST showed significant induction for all concentrations over the exposure period. CAT activity showed induction at low concentration and depression at high concentration. MDA content increased with the rise of BHA during the exposure period. These types of assays, revealing toxic effects of NOR and BHA to phototrophs, could be employed to assess the potential risks of these xenobiotics to aquatic ecological systems.