Prediction of gas/particle partition quotients of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) in north temperate zone air: an empirical approach

Estimation of gaseous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and characteristics of atmospheric PAHs at a traffic site in Kanazawa, Japan

Size-fractionated particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM>2.5) was collected at a traffic site in Kanazawa, Japan in a seasonal sampling work in 2020. Nine polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (4- to 6-ring PAHs) were determined in fine and coarse particles. The gas/particle partitioning coefficients (Kp) of the PAHs were calculated from the supercooled liquid vapour pressure and octanol-air partitioning coefficient based on the relationships obtained in previous traffic pollution-related studies. Gaseous PAHs were estimated by Kp and the concentrations of PM and particulate PAHs. The concentrations of total PAHs were 32.5, 320.1 and 5646.2 pg/m3 in the PM>2.5, PM2.5 and gas phases, respectively. Significant seasonal trends in PAHs were observed (particle phase: lowest in summer, gas phase: lowest in spring, particle and gas phase: lowest in spring). Compared to 2019, the total PAH concentrations (in particles) decreased in 2020, especially in spring and summer, which might be due to reduced traffic trips during the COVID-19 outbreak. The incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) calculated from the toxic equivalent concentrations relative to benzo[a]pyrene (BaPeq) was lower than the acceptable limit issued by the US Environmental Protection Agency, indicating a low cancer risk in long-term exposure to current PAH levels. It is notable that gaseous PAHs considerably contributed to BaPeq and ILCR (over 50%), which highlighted the significance of gaseous PAH monitoring for public health protection. This low-cost estimation method for gaseous PAHs can be expected to reliably and conveniently obtain PAH concentrations as a surrogate for traditional sampling in the future work.

Temporal and spatial distribution of novel brominated flame retardants in atmosphere of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, China

The occurrence and spatio-temporal distribution of atmospheric novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) were studied across five sampling sites in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region over a whole year. By collecting samples (gas and particle) with a high-volume active air sampler (HV-AAS), nine NBFRs were analyzed and the sum concentrations ranged from 1.65 to 344 pg/m3, with the highest value found in the urban sampling site in Shijiazhuang City. Decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) was the predominant congener, which accounted for 60% of ∑9NBFRs on average, while it was 90% of ∑9NBFRs in the rural site and significantly higher than those observed in the urban sites (one-way ANOVA, p < 0.05). The levels of particle-bound NBFRs were significantly correlated with the variation of total suspended particulates (TSP) and temperature (p < 0.01), indicating their evident impact on the spatio-temporal distribution of NBFRs. Moreover, a significantly positive correlation was observed between the concentrations of 2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (EH-TBB) and bis (2-ethyl-1-hexyl) tetrabromophthalate (BEH-TEBP) (p < 0.01). Monocyclic brominated flame retardants (including PBBz, PBT, PBEB, HBB and TBP-DBPE) were correlated with each other (p < 0.01) in both gas and particle phase, suggesting their co-occurrence and the similar source in the environment. The gas-particle partitioning behavior was well predicted by the Li-Jia Empirical Model, and the results indicated that the target NBFRs did not reach the equilibrium state in air. This is one of very few studies revealed the spatio-temporal distribution of atmospheric NBFRs in the BTH region.

Traditional and Novel Organophosphate Esters in Plastic Greenhouse: Occurrence, Multimedia Migration, and Exposure Risk via Vegetable Consumption

The migration and risk of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in agricultural air-soil-plant multimedia systems due to plastic film application remain unclear. This study investigates the multimedia distribution of traditional OPEs (TOPEs), novel OPEs (NOPEs), and their transformation products (POPEs) in plastic and solar greenhouses. The total concentration of OPE-associated contaminants in air and airborne particles ranged from 594 to 1560 pg/m3 and 443 to 15600 ng/g, respectively. Significant correlations between air OPE concentrations and those in polyolefin film (P < 0.01) indicate plastic film as the primary source. Contaminants were also found in soils (96.8-9630 ng/g) and vegetables (197-7540 ng/g). The primary migration pathway for NOPEs was particle dry deposition onto the soil and leaf, followed by plant accumulation. Leaf absorption was the main uptake pathway for TOPEs and POPEs, influenced by vegetable specific leaf surface area. Moreover, total exposure to OPE-associated contaminants via vegetable intake was assessed at 2250 ng/kg bw/day for adults and 2900 ng/kg bw/day for children, with an acceptable hazard index. However, a high ecological risk was identified for NOPE compounds (median risk quotient, 975). This study provides the first evidence of the multimedia distribution and potential threat posed by OPE-associated contaminants in agricultural greenhouses.

Emission and gas-particle partitioning characteristics of atmospheric halogenated and organophosphorus flame retardants in decabromodiphenyl ethane-manufacturing functional areas

The emission and gas-particle partitioning characteristics in various functional areas of production lines are still unknown. However, flame-retardant manufacturing activities are the primary emission source of flame retardants. Thus, fine particles and gases were investigated in three functional areas of a decabromodiphenyl ethane production line, i.e., polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs), dechlorane plus (DPs), and organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) in a flame-retardant manufacturing factory. High levels of PBDEs (8.02 × 10³-4.16 × 10⁴ pg/m³), NBFRs (6.05 × 10³-1.92 × 10⁵ pg/m³), and DPs (89.5-5.20 × 10³ pg/m³) were found in various functional areas, suggesting manufacturing activities were a primary emission source. In contrast, OPFRs were derived from long-range transport or other non-industrial sources. Varied concentrations of PBDEs, NBFRs, and DPs were observed in different production lines, higher in the reaction zone area than others. As the predominant compounds, decabromodiphenyl ether, decabromodiphenyl ethane, syn-DP, and tris(chloropropyl) phosphate accounted for 54.7%, 89.3%, 93.4%, and 34.7% of PBDEs, NBFRs, DPs, and OPFRs, respectively. Three models were used to predict the gas-particle partitioning of the halogenated flame retardants emitted from manufacturing activities. The Li-Jia Empirical Model predicted the gas-particle partitioning behavior well. This research shows that the adsorption-desorption process of the halogenated flame retardants between the gaseous and particulate phases did not reach equilibrium.

Evidence of stockpile contamination for legacy polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in the urban environment of Cyprus (Eastern Mediterranean): Influence of meteorology on air level variability and gas/particle partitioning based on equilibrium and steady-state models

The present study investigated comprehensively the atmospheric occurrence and fate of an extensive range of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs; forty-two congeners), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs; twenty-seven emerging and legacy agrochemicals) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; fifty parent and alkylated members, including the non USEPA-16 listed toxic ones), in both gas and particulate phase of the scarcely monitored atmosphere over Cyprus for the first time. Parent-metabolite concentration ratios suggested fresh application for dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethanes (DDTs), dicofol, hexachlorocyclohexanes, endosulfan and chlorothalonil, particularly during spring (April-May). Regressions of logarithms of partial pressure against ambient temperature revealed that secondary recycling from contaminated terrestrial surfaces regulates the atmospheric level variability of PCBs, DDTs, aldrin, chlordane, dicofol, heptachlor and endosulfan. Enthalpies of surface-air exchange (∆H_SA) calculated from Clausius-Clapeyron equations were significantly correlated to vaporization enthalpies (∆H_V) determined by chromatographic techniques, corroborating presence of potential stockpile-contaminated sites around the study area. The Harner-Bidleman equilibrium model simulating urban areas, and the Li-Jia empirical model, predicted better the partitioning behavior of PAHs (<four-ring parent and alkylated members), PCBs (<hexa-chlorobiphenyls), and OCPs, respectively. For heavier PAHs and PCBs, partitioning coefficients (K_P) were inadequately predicted by the Li-Ma-Yang steady-state model, probably due to local human activities and regional transport in the study area.

Gas-particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from oil combustion involving condensate, diesel and heavy oil

This study focuses on the gas-particle (G-P) partitioning of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil combustion, which is one of the important contributors of anthropogenic PAHs but has been rarely studied. The combustions of different types of oils involving ultra-light to heavy oils were investigated, and the PAH partitioning mechanism was determined by the widely used Junge-Pankow adsorption model, K_oa absorption model, and dual sorption model, respectively. The results show that the source-specific diagnostic ratios of Ant/(Ant+Phe) are between 0.09 and 0.24, the estimated regression slopes of G-P partition coefficients (K_P) of the total PAHs on their sub-cooled liquid vapor pressures (P_L^O) are in the range of - 0.34 to - 0.25, and the predicted fractions of PAHs in the particle phase (φ) by K_oa absorption model are close to the measured values, while the log K_Pvalues of the LMW PAHs from the combustions of diesel and heavy oil are better represented by the dual sorption model. Our findings indicate that PAHs are derived from mixed sources that include the unburned original oil and combustion products, and the PAH partitioning mechanism is governed by the process of absorption into organic matter because of the unburned oil, but both adsorption and absorption exist simultaneously in the lighter PAHs from the combustions of heavier oils (i.e., diesel and heavy oil). Based on these findings, the understanding of the fate and transport of PAH emissions and the optimization of the emergency responses to accidents such as marine oil spills would be potentially improved.

Prediction of the gas/particle partitioning quotient of PAHs based on ambient temperature

Gas/particle (G/P) partitioning is an important influencing factor for the environmental fate of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs). The G/P partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is an integrated complex process due to its formation and growth concurrently with particles. Based on the large dataset of gaseous and particulate samples in a wide ambient temperature range of 50 °C, the simple empirical equations based on ambient temperature were established to predict the G/P partitioning quotient (K_P) of PAHs at the temperature range from 252 K to 307 K (-21 °C to 34 °C). The performance of the empirical equations was validated by comparison with the monitoring K_P of PAHs worldwide. The empirical equations exhibited good performance for the prediction of K_P of PAHs based on ambient temperature. Two deviations with the prediction lines of the previous G/P partitioning models from the monitoring data of K_P were observed. It was found that the deviations might be attributed to some non-considered influencing factors with the previous G/P partitioning prediction models. Therefore, further research should be conducted to study the mechanism of the G/P partitioning of PAHs, and more influencing factors should be introduced into the establishment of G/P partitioning models of PAHs. In summary, the result of the present study provided a convenient method for the prediction of K_P of PAHs, which should be useful for the study of environmental fate of PAHs in atmosphere.

Approach to Predicting the Size-Dependent Inhalation Intake of Particulate Novel Brominated Flame Retardants

The risk of human exposure to particulate novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) in the atmosphere has received increasing attention from scientists and the public, but currently, there is no reliable approach to predict the intake of these compounds on the basis of their size distribution. Here, we develop a reliable approach to predict the size-dependent inhalation intake of particulate NBFRs, based on the gas/particle (G/P) partitioning behavior of the NBFRs. We analyzed the concentrations of eight NBFRs in 363 size-segregated particulate samples and 99 paired samples of gaseous and bulk particles. Using these data, we developed an equation to predict the G/P partitioning quotients of NBFRs in particles in different size ranges (K_Pi) based on particle size. This equation was then successfully applied to predict the size-dependent inhalation intake of particulate NBFRs in combination with an inhalation exposure model. This new approach provides the first demonstration of the effects of the temperature-dependent octanol-air partitioning coefficient (K_OA) and total suspended particle concentration (TSP) on the intake of particulate NBFRs by inhalation. In an illustrative case where TSP = 100 μg m^-3, inhalation intake of particulate NBFRs exceeded the intake of gaseous NBFRs when log K_OA > 11.4.

Slopes and intercepts from log-log correlations of gas/particle quotient and octanol-air partition coefficient (vapor-pressure) for semi-volatile organic compounds: I. Theoretical analysis

Gas/particle partitioning governs the transport and fate of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) released to the atmosphere. The partition quotient of SVOCs, K_P, is related to their subcooled liquid vapor pressure (logK_P = m_p logP_L + b_p) and to their octanol-air partition coefficient (logK_P = m_o logK_OA + b_o). Previous theory predicts that -m_p and m_o should be close to, or equal to 1 based on the assumption that gas- and particle-phases are at equilibrium in the atmosphere. Here, we develop analytical equations to calculate m_o and b_o as functions of logK_OA and m_p and b_p as functions of logP_L. We find that experimental, analytical, or statistical artifacts and other reported factors are not the leading causes for deviations of the slopes, m_p and m_o, from -1 and 1, respectively. Rather, it is the inherent parameter, K_OA, that determines m_o and b_o, and equivalently, P_L is the major parameter determining m_p and b_p, and such deviations are evidence that equilibrium is an inappropriate assumption. In contrast, the actual steady-state between gas and particle phases of SVOCs leads that their -m_p and m_o should range from 0 to 1, implying that equilibrium is a reasonable assumption only when -m_p and m_o are larger than 0.49. To illustrate these points, we provide a detailed discussion of the global atmospheric transport of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) with emphasis on Polar Regions where low air temperatures favor a special steady-state, where their slopes m_p and m_o can reach 0, indicating a constant value of logK_P (-1.53).

New equation to predict size-resolved gas-particle partitioning quotients for polybrominated diphenyl ethers

Gas/particle (G/P) partition quotients of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) for bulk air have been widely discussed in experimental and theoretical contexts, but research on size-resolved G/P partition quotients (K_Pi) are scarce and limited in scope. To investigate G/P partition behavior of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) for size-segregated particles in the atmosphere, 396 individual size-segregated particulate samples (36 batches × 11 size-ranges), and 108 pairs of concurrent gaseous and bulk particulate samples were collected in Harbin, China. A steady-state equation based on bulk particles is derived to determine G/P partition quotients of PBDEs for size-segregated particles, which depends on the organic matter contents of size-segregated particles (f_OMi). This equation can well predict K_Pi with knowledge of bulk partition quotient (K_PS), ambient temperature, and f_OMi, the results of which match well with monitoring data in Harbin and other published data collected in Shanghai and Guangzhou of China and Thessaloniki of Greece, and remedies a defect of over-estimate K_Pi for high-brominated PBDEs by the previous equation. In particular, the new equation contributes to obtaining the PBDEs concentrations in all atmospheric phase from partial phase, then provides a credible path to evaluate healthy exposure dose from the airborne PBDEs, by co-utilization with exposure models.

Atmospheric organophosphate esters in the Western Antarctic Peninsula over 2014-2018: Occurrence, temporal trend and source implication

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) were comprehensively investigated in the air samples collected using high-volume samplers near the Chinese Great Wall Station in the Western Antarctic Peninsula over the period of 2014-2018. The concentrations of ∑₈OPEs (gaseous + particle phases) ranged from 33.9 to 404 pg/m³ with a geometric mean of 119 ± 12.0 pg/m³. Tris [(2R)-1-chloro-2-propyl] phosphate (TCIPP) and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) dominated in the gaseous phase, while tris-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP) was the most abundant OPEs in the particle phase, followed by TCIPP and TCEP. An apparently temporal trend was observed for atmospheric ∑₈OPEs over the five years, with a doubling time of about 3.8 years, which indicated continuous inputs of OPEs into the sampling area. The particle-bound ∑₈OPEs accounted for 45% of the total, generally lower than that reported in the Arctic. Gas-particle partitioning modeling suggested that the partitioning of OPEs with higher logK_OA values approached the steady state in the Antarctic air. The back-trajectory modeling showed that high levels of OPEs were usually associated with air inputs from the northwest of the peninsula. This suggested that long-range transport from South America, which was confirmed by the no temperature dependencies of OPEs concentrations (excluding TnBP). Nevertheless, a steady high level of particle-bound TnBP implied local sources in the Western Antarctic Peninsula, which required further investigation in future works.

Modeling gas/particle partitioning of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the atmosphere: A review

Gas/particle (G/P) partitioning of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), is an important atmospheric process due to its significance in governing atmospheric fate, wet/dry deposition, and long-range atmospheric transport. In this article, eight models published to predict the G/P partitioning of PBDEs are reviewed. These eight models are used to calculate the G/P partitioning quotient and particulate phase fraction of selected PBDE congeners. A comparison of the predicted results from the eight models with monitoring data published by several research groups worldwide leads to the following conclusions: 1) when the values of the logarithm of the octanol-air partition coefficient (logK_OA) fall below 11.4 (the first threshold value, logK_OA1), all 8 models perform well in predicting the G/P partitioning of PBDEs in the atmosphere, and 2) when logK_OA is >11.4, and especially above 12.5 (the second threshold value, logK_OA2), the Li-Ma-Yang model, a steady-state model developed based on wet and dry deposition of the particles (Li et al., Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2015; 15:1669-1681), shows the best performance with highest conformity to the measurements for selected PBDEs (94.4 ± 1.6% data points within ±1 log unit). Overall, the Li-Ma-Yang model appears to capture the most important factors that affect the partitioning of PBDEs between gaseous and particular phases in the atmosphere.

Soil concentrations and soil-air exchange of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in five Asian countries

The Asia Soil and Air Monitoring Program (Asia-SAMP) is a large-scale monitoring program spanning China, Japan, South Korea, Vietnam and India. 47 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analyzed in 169 concurrently collected surface soil samples across the five study regions. Total PAH concentrations (∑₄₇PAHs) ranged from 13.1 to 7310 ng/g dry weight, with a median value of 272 ng/g dry weight. Higher concentrations of ΣPAHs were recorded in soils from urban areas, followed by soils from rural areas and background soils. Low correlation coefficients were found between PAHs concentrations with population density, surface air temperature and soil organic content. A trend of depleting high molecular weight PAHs and enrichment of low molecular weight PAHs occurred from east to west in Chinese soils. Based on atmospheric PAHs detected in almost the same sampling sites, the equilibrium status of PAHs in the atmosphere and on the ground was investigated. Sample sites with a soil-air equilibrium status for different PAH congeners recorded differences, and differences were recorded between seasons. 2-ring PAHs were mainly volatilized, and 5- & 6-ring PAHs were mainly deposited in all seasons and across all study regions. 3- & 4-ring PAHs were more affected by soil-air transfer, showing a tendency to accumulate in soils in cold regions/seasons and to be re-volatilized into the atmosphere in warm regions/seasons. Partitioning and exchange of PAHs among soil and air were significantly affected by the air temperature.

Gas/particle partitioning of semi-volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere: Transition from unsteady to steady state

We derive differential equations to determine the kinetics of gas/particle partitioning of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs). These equations model the transient states from initiation of sorption to particles (non-steady state) through the establishment of steady state. Two hypothetical scenarios are examined: (1) exchange of SVOCs between gas- and particle-phases alone; and (2) both gas/particle partitioning and wet and dry deposition of particles. The differential equations show that, under Scenario 1, a steady state is reached as an equilibrium between gas- and particle-phases, whereas under Scenario 2, the attained steady state is not in equilibrium. Our model shows that SVOCs in atmosphere where particle deposition is occurring reach a steady non-equilibrium state sooner than they would reach equilibrium under Scenario 1. We infer that SVOCs in the atmosphere will reach steady state instead of equilibrium between gaseous and particulate phases in circumstances where wet and dry deposition of particles cannot be neglected. In addition, our study indicates that the time for SVOCs to reach steady state in the atmosphere is fast, most likely within minutes or hours, suggesting that SVOCs are in steady or quasi-steady state in the atmosphere. Our analysis also reveals that gas/particle partitioning and particle deposition of SVOCs are dependent on each other.

Gas/particle partitioning of PAHs based on equilibrium-state model and steady-state model

The gas/particle (G/P) partitioning (K_P) behavior is an important factor for the environmental fate of PAHs in atmosphere. Based on large database of log K_P, equilibrium-state and steady-state models were applied for the comprehensive study with the G/P partitioning of PAHs, including the Harner-Bidleman (H-B) model, the Dachs-Eisenreich (D-E) model, and the Li-Ma-Yang (L-M-Y) model. For different sites, the trend of regression between log K_P and log K_OA was same, however, the slopes and intercepts were different. No obvious difference was observed between northern Chinese cities and southern Chinese cities. For congeners and aromatic rings of PAHs, the difference was much more obvious for the regressions, slopes and intercepts. The prediction of the D-E model and the H-B model matched well for the regression of the 4-rings and 5-rings PAHs, with >80% of monitoring data points in the range of ±1 log unit. The L-M-Y model only predicted well with the measurement for 4-rings PAHs with special values of log K_OA. For different ranges of log K_OA, the difference with the regression between log K_P and log K_OA was also obvious. Compared with our measurement, if 1 order of magnitude difference with log K_P values between prediction and measurement was considered, the H-B model, the D-E model and the L-M-Y model can be only used when the log K_OA in the ranges from 7.65 to 13.7, 6.88 to 13.5, and 7.65 to 11.7, respectively. Therefore, further studies with prediction models should be conducted for the G/P partitioning of PAHs. The results of this study provided new insights into the research field of the G/P partitioning of SVOCs.

PAHs in Chinese atmosphere: Gas/particle partitioning

The gas/particle (G/P) partitioning behavior is an important factor for the environmental fate of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in atmosphere. Based on one year monitoring program at 11 urban sites across China, 7647 pairs of gaseous and particulate concentrations were obtained for 16 priority PAHs, which provided a good opportunity to study the G/P partitioning behavior of PAHs. The concentrations of PAHs in both gas and particle phases were not in the same level among the 11 sites with a difference of more than one orders of magnitude. Along with the increase of molar weight of PAHs, the proportion of concentration in particle phase was increasing. In particle phase, the concentrations of ∑₁₆PAHs in northern Chinese cities were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those in southern Chinese cities with the average concentrations of 83.4 ± 151 ng/m³ and 33.4 ± 45.5 ng/m³, respectively. However, non-significant difference was found with ∑₁₆PAHs in gas phase. The values of log K_P (the G/P partitioning coefficient/quotient) ranged from -5.65 m³/μg to 2.34 m³/μg, with the mean value of -2.01 ± 1.65 m³/μg for the 16 PAHs. The values of log K_P for individual PAHs at the 11 sites were not in the same level. Furthermore, significant difference (p < 0.05) with log K_P of the 16 PAHs was found between northern Chinese cities and southern Chinese cities except for Acy, Flu and DahA. More than one orders of magnitude difference with K_P were observed for different congeners and different rings PAHs, which are mainly caused by their physical-chemical properties. The results of this study provided large database of K_P, which is necessary and important to the research field of the G/P partitioning of PAHs.

Brominated flame retardants in a computer technical service: Indoor air gas phase, submicron (PM1) and coarse (PM10) particles, associated inhalation exposure, and settled dust

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are found in multi-media indoors, therefore, may pose serious risks to human health. This study investigated the occurrence of BFRs in particulate matter (PM₁ and PM₁₀) and gas phase by active and passive sampling, and settled dust to estimate potential exposure in a computer technical service. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and their alternatives (novel BFRs, NBFRs) were studied. PM and gas phase were collected on glass fiber filters and polyurethane foam plugs, respectively, and analyzed with a GC/MS after extraction, clean-up, and concentration. Inhalation exposure of the staff was estimated based on the measured concentrations using Monte Carlo simulation. BDE-209 was the dominating PBDE congener in all media while bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate and 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane were those of NBFRs. Submicron particulate matter (PM₁) BFR levels constituted about one half of the PM₁₀-associated concentrations, while average PM₁₀ mass concentration (69.9 μg m^-3) was nine times that of PM₁ (7.73 μg m^-3). Calculated log₁₀ dust-gas and PM-gas partitioning coefficients ranged from -5.03 to -2.10, -2.21 to -0.55, and -2.26 to -1.04 for settled dust, PM₁₀, and PM₁, respectively. The indoor/outdoor concentration ratios were >1 for all compounds indicating the strength of indoor sources in the service. The estimated potential inhalation exposures, for future chronic-toxic and carcinogenic risk assessments, indicated that the levels of gas-phase and PM₁-associated exposures were similar at approximately one half of PM₁₀-associated levels. Results of this study indicate that the occurrence of BFRs in all studied media should be taken into consideration for occupational health mitigation efforts.

Measurement and modeling the gas/particle partitioning of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in atmosphere at low temperatures

The gas/particle (G/P) partition of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) has been widely investigated and well documented, but rare at low temperature. In this study, seventy-four pairs of air samples in two sampling sites in northeastern China at a wide ambient temperature range of ~63 °C (-40 to +23 °C) were simultaneously collected in both gaseous and particulate phases and eighteen OCPs in these samples were measured and analyzed, among which, partition quotient (K_P) values for fifteen OCPs were determined. Seven models including those have never been used for OCPs were applied to predict the values of K_P, and the results were compared with the monitoring data for the fifteen OCPs. It was found out that, L-M-Y model provided advantages over the other models, with the best agreement to the monitoring data for analyzed OCPs (90.1 ± 11.1% data points within ±1 log unit, RMSE: 0.53 ± 0.18). The predicted maximum partition (MP) domain for eleven OCPs was observed with high values of their logarithm of octanol-air partition coefficient (log K_OA > 12.5), where the log K_P values become a constant (-1.53), indicating that the G/P partition of OCPs is in steady state but not the equilibrium. The Li-Ma-Yang (L-M-Y model) model, considering the wet and dry depositions of particles, elucidates the necessity of non-equilibrium term for the OCPs at low temperature. These results indicate that the L-M-Y model is valid for OCPs, which renders it highly promising for describing the partition behaviors in atmosphere for SVOCs, particularly at low temperature. An equation to calculate the condensation temperature T_C was also derived, which gave a new understanding on the situation of chemicals with equal distribution between gaseous and particulate phases of OCPs and other similar SVOCs, especially in Polar Regions.

Mirror image between gas-particle partitioning and soil-moss distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the polar regions

The concentrations and congener-specific profiles of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were investigated in the atmosphere, soil and moss samples were collected from Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard in the Arctic and King Georgia Island (KGI), Fildes Peninsula in Antarctica, respectively. The congener profiles of PBDEs were symmetrical between gas and moss, as well as between particles and soil at Ny-Ålesund and KGI, respectively, similar to a "mirror image". The proportions of highly brominated congeners (for example, BDE-99, -153 and -183) in the particle phase and soil were higher than those in the gas phase and moss, while tri- and tetra-BDEs possessed higher proportions in the gas phase and moss at both sites. The slopes of log-log linear correlations between the gas-particle partition coefficient (K_p) and sub-cooled liquid vapor pressures (p^°_L) of PBDEs were observed at both sites compared with the values in the urban areas. Moreover, the slopes of logK_p vs. logp^°_L (-0.51 at Ny-Ålesund and - 0.29 at KGI) were notably close to the slopes of log-log linear correlations between the dimensionless soil-moss quotient (Q_SM) and p^°_L (-0.42 at Ny-Ålesund and -0.22 at KGI). Significant correlations between particle fraction (φ_particle) and soil fraction (φ_soil) at both sites indicated that the gas-particle partitioning of PBDEs is directly related to their distribution in moss and soil.

Spatio-temporal variations of atmospheric and soil polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in highly industrialized region of Dilovasi

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were investigated in ambient air of a highly industrialized region at 23 different sampling sites for 12 months. Total concentrations of 8 PBDE congeners (Σ₈PBDE) were found to be between 5.73 and 520 pg m^-3 (94.7 ± 78.9; average ± SD) and BDE-209 was the predominant congener, followed by BDE-47 and/or BDE-99. Their contributions to Σ₈PBDE were 71 ± 13, 9 ± 4% and 8 ± 4%; respectively. Compared to previous studies around the world, high concentrations detected in Dilovasi demonstrated the severity of atmospheric PBDE pollution in the area. For all sampling sites, average PBDE concentration obtained in summer (118.5 ± 98.7 pg m^-3) was higher than one found in winter period (79.7 ± 59.1 pg m^-3) and this seasonal difference was more obvious in industrial/urban sites (p < 0.05), probably due to enhanced volatilization from ongoing PBDE sources such as waste incineration and iron-steel plants. The soil-air exchange tendencies of PBDEs did not show substantial differences between the sampling periods with small variations for each congener. All congeners either tend to deposit to soil or to be within the equilibrium range for all seasons. This reflects the impact of local ongoing sources rather than temperature on the direction of soil-air exchange of PBDEs in this region. Specific congener ratios such as BDE-47/-99 and -99/-100 confirmed the impact of local sources rather than long-range transport on PBDE congeners in the study area. According to the Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) results, the BDE-209 content of the first factor was found to be 91.7% and this factor was attributed to the deca-BDE technical formulations. The second factor was highly rich with both BDE-183 (%61) and BDE-28 (%52) and identified as octa-BDE technical products. The last factor was highly loaded with BDE-99, BDE-47, BDE-100, BDE-154 and BDE-153 and has been determined as the penta-BDE commercial formulations.

Estimating subcooled liquid vapor pressures and octanol-air partition coefficients of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and their temperature dependence

Both subcooled liquid vapor pressure (P_L) and octanol-air partition coefficient (K_OA) are widely used as descriptors to predict gas-particle partitioning behavior of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). These two descriptors are functions of temperature, which are expressed as the Clausius-Clapeyron equations with the coefficients A_L and B_L for P_L (log P_L=A_L+B_L/T) and A_O and B_O for K_OA (log K_OA=A_O+B_O/T), where T is temperature in K. In this study, a simple equation to relate log K_OA and log P_L (log K_OA=-log P_L+6.46) was derived, which also links the coefficients of A_L &B_L and A_O &B_O. Regression analysis of published data of internal energy ΔU_OA for 22 PBDE congeners with their mole mass was made, leading a regression equation to calculate the internal energy for all 209 PBDE congeners. Three datasets of log K_OA at 25°C for all 209 PBDE congeners were evaluated; the one with the best match with experimentally measurements was selected. Using the datasets and equations described above, we calculated the values of Clausius-Clapeyron coefficients A_O &B_O and A_L &B_L for all 209 PBDE congeners at the following steps. First, B_O was computed using the values of ΔU_OA. Next, we calculated the values of A_O using the values of B_O and the values of log K_OA at 25°C. Finally, the values of the parameter A_L and B_L were determined for all 209 PBDE congeners. Results are in consistent with data available in the literature and the accuracy of the data were also evaluated. With these Clausius-Clapeyron coefficients, the values of P_L and K_OA at any environmentally relevant temperature can be calculated for all 209 PBDE congeners, and thus provides a quick reference for environmental monitoring and modeling of PBDEs.

Characteristics of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers Released from Thermal Treatment and Open Burning of E-Waste

Primitive processing of e-waste potentially releases abundant organic contaminants to the environment, but the magnitudes and mechanisms remain to be adequately addressed. We conducted thermal treatment and open burning of typical e-wastes, that is, plastics and printed circuit boards. Emission factors of the sum of 39 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (∑₃₉PBDE) were 817-1.60 × 10⁵ ng g^-1 in thermal treatment and nondetected-9.14 × 10⁴ ng g^-1, in open burning. Airborne particles (87%) were the main carriers of PBDEs, followed by residual ashes (13%) and gaseous constituents (0.3%), in thermal treatment, while they were 30%, 43% and 27% in open burning. The output-input mass ratios of ∑₃₉PBDE were 0.12-3.76 in thermal treatment and 0-0.16 in open burning. All PBDEs were largely affiliated with fine particles, with geometric mean diameters at 0.61-0.83 μm in thermal degradation and 0.57-1.16 μm in open burning from plastic casings, and 0.44-0.56 and nondetected- 0.55 μm, from printed circuit boards. Evaporation and reabsorption may be the main emission mechanisms for lightly brominated BDEs, but heavily brominated BDEs tend to affiliate with particles from heating or combustion. The different size distributions of particulate PBDEs in emission sources and adjacent air implicated a noteworthy redisposition process during atmospheric dispersal.

A miniature bird-borne passive air sampler for monitoring halogenated flame retardants

Birds have been used intensively as biomonitors of halogenated flame retardants (HFRs), and several studies have reported elevated tissue concentrations and inter-individual variability for these contaminants. While diet is known to be an important exposure pathway for HFRs in birds, it has been suggested that exposure through air may represent an underestimated source of HFRs for certain species. However, a method was not available for measuring the atmospheric exposure of individual birds to HFRs or other semi-volatile contaminants. The goal of this study was to develop a bird-borne passive air sampler (PAS) enabling the determination of individual atmospheric exposure to gas- and particle-phase HFRs using the ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis) nesting in the Montreal area (QC, Canada). The new miniaturized elliptical-shaped PAS (mean weight: 2.72g) was tested using two sorbent types during three exposure periods (one, two and three weeks). Results showed that PAS using polyurethane foam (PUF) combined with a glass fiber filter collected all major polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and exhibited better performance for collecting highly hydrophobic DecaBDE mixture congeners compared to the PAS using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Emerging HFRs including hexabromobenzene, Dechlorane 604 Component B, and Dechlorane plus (DP) isomers also were sampled by the PUF-based PAS. Sampling rates for most HFRs were comparable between the three exposure periods. This novel bird-borne PAS provides valuable information on the non-dietary exposure of free-ranging birds to HFRs.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in background air around the Aegean: implications for phase partitioning and size distribution

The occurrence and atmospheric behavior of tri- to deca-polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were investigated during a 2-week campaign concurrently conducted in July 2012 at four background sites around the Aegean Sea. The study focused on the gas/particle (G/P) partitioning at three sites (Ag. Paraskevi/central Greece/suburban, Finokalia/southern Greece/remote coastal, and Urla/Turkey/rural coastal) and on the size distribution at two sites (Neochorouda/northern Greece/rural inland and Finokalia/southern Greece/remote coastal). The lowest mean total (G + P) concentrations of ∑₇PBDE (BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-66, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-154) and BDE-209 (0.81 and 0.95 pg m^-3, respectively) were found at the remote site Finokalia. Partitioning coefficients, K _P, were calculated, and their linear relationships with ambient temperature and the physicochemical properties of the analyzed PBDE congeners, i.e., the subcooled liquid pressure (P _L°) and the octanol-air partition coefficient (K _OA), were investigated. The equilibrium adsorption (P _L°-based) and absorption (K _OA-based) models, as well as a steady-state absorption model including an equilibrium and a non-equilibrium term, both being functions of log K _OA, were used to predict the fraction Φ of PBDEs associated with the particle phase. The steady-state model proved to be superior to predict G/P partitioning of BDE-209. The distribution of particle-bound PBDEs across size fractions < 0.95, 0.95-1.5, 1.5-3.0, 3.0-7.2, and > 7.2 μm indicated a positive correlation between the mass median aerodynamic diameter and log P _L° for the less brominated congeners, whereas a negative correlation was observed for the high brominated congeners. The potential source regions of PBDEs were acknowledged as a combination of long-range transport with short-distance sources.

Gas-particle phase partitioning and particle size distribution of chlorinated and brominated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in haze

Chlorinated and brominated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Cl/Br-PAHs) are emerging semi-volatile organic pollutants in haze-associated particulate matter (PM). Their gas-particle phase partitioning and distribution among PM fractions have not been clarified. Clarification would increase understanding of atmospheric behavior and health risks of Cl/Br-PAHs. In this study, samples of the gas phase and 4 PM phases (aerodynamic diameters (d_ae) > 10 μm, 2.5-10 μm, 1.0-2.5 μm, and <1.0 μm) were collected simultaneously during haze events in Beijing and analyzed. Normalized histogram distribution indicated that the Cl/Br-PAHs tended to adhere to fine particles. Over 80% of the Cl-PAHs and 70% of the Br-PAHs were associated with fine PM (d_ae < 2.5 μm). The gas-particle phase partitioning and PM distribution of Cl/Br-PAHs when heating of buildings was required, which was associated with haze events, were obviously different from those when heating was not required. The relationship between the logarithmic geometric mean diameters of the Cl/Br-PAH congeners and reciprocal of the temperature (1/T) suggested that low air temperatures during the heating period could lead to high proportions of Cl/Br-PAHs in the fine particles. Increased coal burning during the heating period also contributed to high Cl/Br-PAH loads in the fine particles.

A review of AirQ Models and their applications for forecasting the air pollution health outcomes

Even though clean air is considered as a basic requirement for the maintenance of human health, air pollution continues to pose a significant health threat in developed and developing countries alike. Monitoring and modeling of classic and emerging pollutants is vital to our knowledge of health outcomes in exposed subjects and to our ability to predict them. The ability to anticipate and manage changes in atmospheric pollutant concentrations relies on an accurate representation of the chemical state of the atmosphere. The task of providing the best possible analysis of air pollution thus requires efficient computational tools enabling efficient integration of observational data into models. A number of air quality models have been developed and play an important role in air quality management. Even though a large number of air quality models have been discussed or applied, their heterogeneity makes it difficult to select one approach above the others. This paper provides a brief review on air quality models with respect to several aspects such as prediction of health effects.

Multi-year air monitoring of legacy and current-use brominated flame retardants in an urban center in northeastern China

The occurrence and temporal trends of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and non-PBDE brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) were investigated in an urban atmosphere of Northeast China in consecutive six years (2008-2013). Among all chemicals, BDE-209, l,2,5,6,9,10-hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), and decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) were the three most dominant compounds. During the period, the levels of pentabromodiphenyl ethers in the gas-phase and octabromodiphenyl ethers in the particle-phase significantly decreased, while the levels of BDE-209 and NBFRs increased in either the gas-phase or particle-phase. Ambient temperature was the most significant variable that influenced the gas-phase and particle-phase concentrations of BFRs, followed by wind speed and relative humidity. A stronger temperature dependence of the atmospheric concentrations was found for lower mass BFRs. Gas-particle partitioning studies suggested PBDEs in the urban atmosphere of Northeast China were at steady-state. Steady-state equation can also well describe the partitioning behavior for NBFRs, suggesting that the atmospheric partitioning behaviors of NBFRs were similar to those of PBDEs.

Airborne polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PBDD/Fs), and dechlorane plus (DP) in concentrated vehicle parking areas

This study investigated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PBDD/Fs), and dechlorane plus (DP) in air around three concentrated vehicle parking areas (underground, indoor, and outdoor) in a metropolitan of South China. The parking areas showed higher concentrations of PBDEs, PBDD/Fs, and DP than their adjacent urban area or distinct congener/isomer profiles, which indicate their local emission sources. The highest PBDE and DP concentrations were found in the outdoor parking lot, which might be related to the heating effect of direct sunlight exposure. Multi-linear regression analysis results suggest that deca-BDEs without noticeable transformation contributed most to airborne PBDEs in all studied areas, followed by penta-BDEs. The statistically lower anti-DP fractions in the urban area than that of commercial product signified its degradation/transformation during transportation. Neither PBDEs nor vehicle exhaust contributed much to airborne PBDD/Fs in the parking areas. There were 68.1-100 % of PBDEs, PBDD/Fs, and DP associated with particles. Logarithms of gas-particle distribution coefficients (K ps) of PBDEs were significantly linear-correlated with those of their sub-cooled vapor pressures (p Ls) and octanol-air partition coefficients (K OAs) in all studied areas. The daily inhalation doses of PBDEs, DP, and PBDD/Fs were individually estimated as 89.7-10,741, 2.05-39.4, and 0.12-4.17 pg kg(-1) day(-1) for employees in the parking areas via Monte Carlo simulation.

Laboratory study of the particle-size distribution of Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) in ambient air

Laboratory measurements for particle-size distribution of Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) were performed in a 0.5 m(3) sealed room at 25 °C. BDE-209 was manually bounded to ambient particles. An electrostatic field-sampler was employed to collect particles. The number of collected particles (n(i,j), i and j was the class of particle diameter and applied voltage on electrostatic field-sampler sampler, respectively) and the corresponding mass of BDE-209 in collected particles (m(∑i,j)) were determined in a series of 6 experiments. The particle-size distribution coefficient (ki) was calculated through equations related to n(i,j) and m(∑i,j), and the particle-size distribution of BDE-209 was determined by ki·n(i,j). Results revealed that BDE-209 distributed in particles of all size and were not affiliated with fine particles as in field measurements. The particle size-fraction should be taken into account when discussing the particle-size distribution of BDE-209 in ambient air due to the normalized coefficients (normalized to k1) and were approximately in the same order of magnitude for each diameter class. The method described in the present study was deemed feasible in determining the particle-size distribution of BDE-209 from vaporization sources and helpful to understanding the instinct rule of particle-size distribution of BDE-209, and potentially feasible for other SVOCs.

Five-year trends of selected halogenated flame retardants in the atmosphere of Northeast China

This study collected 227 pairs of gas phase and particle phase air samples in a typical urban city of Northeast China from 2008 to 2013. Four alternative halogenated flame retardants for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were analyzed, namely 2-ethylhexyl 2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (EHTBB), bis (2-ethylhexyl) tetrabromophthalate (BEHTBP), syn-dechlorane plus (syn-DP) and anti-dechlorane plus (anti-DP). The average concentrations for EHTBB and BEHTBP were 5.2 ± 20 and 30 ± 200 pg/m3, respectively, while for syn-DP and anti-DPwere 1.9±5.1 and 5.8±18 pg/m3, respectively. Generally, they were frequently detected in the particle phase, and the gas/particle partitioning suggested they were the maximum partition chemicals. The fractional abundance of EHTBB (fEHTBB) and syn-DP (fsyn)were comparablewith those in other studies. Strong local sources were identified based on the air parcel backward trajectories and the potential source contribution function. The concentrations of these chemicals were significantly increased during this sampling campaign, possibly suggesting their increasing usages from 2008 to 2013 in China.

Size distribution of airborne particle-bound polybrominated diphenyl ethers and its implications for dry and wet deposition

Size distribution of particles in part dictates the environmental behavior of particle-bound organic pollutants in the atmosphere. The present study was conducted to examine the potential mechanisms responsible for the distribution of organic pollutants in size fractionated particles and their environmental implications, using an e-waste recycling zone in South China as a case study. Size-fractionated atmospheric particles were collected at the heights of 1.5, 5, and 20 m near two residential apartments and analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The concentrations of particle-bound ΣPBDE (sum of 18 PBDE congeners) were significantly greater at 5 and 20 m than those at 1.5 m. The size-fractionated distributions of airborne ΣPBDE displayed trimodal peaks in 0.10–0.18, 1.8–3.2, and 10–18 μm at 1.5 m but only an unimodal peak in 1.0–1.8 μm at 20 m height. Emission sources, resuspension of dust and soil, and volatility of PBDEs were important factors influencing the size distribution of particle-bound PBDEs. The dry deposition fluxes of particle-bound PBDE estimated from the measured data in the present study were approximately twice the estimated wet deposition fluxes, with a total deposition flux of 3000 ng m(–2) d(–1). The relative contributions of particles to dry and wet deposition fluxes were also size-dependent, e.g., coarse (aerodynamic diameters (Dp) > 1.8 μm) and fine (Dp < 1.8 μm) particles dominated the dry and wet deposition fluxes of PBDEs, respectively.