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Drobac Backović D, Tokodi N. Cyanotoxins in food: Exposure assessment and health impact. Food Res Int 2024; 184:114271. [PMID: 38609248 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
The intricate nature of cyanotoxin exposure through food reveals a complex web of risks and uncertainties in our dietary choices. With the aim of starting to unravel this intricate nexus, a comprehensive review of 111 papers from the past two decades investigating cyanotoxin contamination in food was undertaken. It revealed a widespread occurrence of cyanotoxins in diverse food sources across 31 countries. Notably, 68% of the studies reported microcystin concentrations exceeding established Tolerable Daily Intake levels. Cyanotoxins were detected in muscles of many fish species, and while herbivorous fish exhibited the highest recorded concentration, omnivorous species displayed a higher propensity for cyanotoxin accumulation, exemplified by Oreochromis niloticus. Beyond fish, crustaceans and bivalves emerged as potent cyanotoxin accumulators. Gaps persist regarding contamination of terrestrial and exotic animals and their products, necessitating further exploration. Plant contamination under natural conditions remains underreported, yet evidence underscores irrigation-driven cyanotoxin accumulation, particularly affecting leafy vegetables. Finally, cyanobacterial-based food supplements often harbored cyanotoxins (57 % of samples were positive) warranting heightened scrutiny, especially for Aphanizomenon flos-aquae-based products. Uncertainties surround precise concentrations due to methodological variations (chemical and biochemical) and extraction limitations, along with the enigmatic fate of toxins during storage, processing, and digestion. Nonetheless, potential health consequences of cyanotoxin exposure via contaminated food include gastrointestinal and neurological disorders, organ damage (e.g. liver, kidneys, muscles), and even elevated cancer risks. While microcystins received significant attention, knowledge gaps persist regarding other cyanotoxins' accumulation, exposure, and effects, as well as combined exposure via multiple pathways. Intriguing and complex, cyanotoxin exposure through food beckons further research for our safer and healthier diets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damjana Drobac Backović
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia
| | - Nada Tokodi
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia; Jagiellonian University, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Laboratory of Metabolomics, Gronostajowa 7, Krakow 30387, Poland.
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2
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Li M, Qiu J, Yan G, Zheng X, Li A. How does the neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine exist in biological matrices and cause toxicity? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 922:171255. [PMID: 38417517 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
The neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) has been deemed as a risk factor for some neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/parkinsonism dementia complex (ALS/PDC). This possible link has been proved in some primate models and cell cultures with the appearance that BMAA exposure can cause excitotoxicity, formation of protein aggregates, and/or oxidative stress. The neurotoxin BMAA extensively exists in the environment and can be transferred through the food web to human beings. In this review, the occurrence, toxicological mechanisms, and characteristics of BMAA were comprehensively summarized, and proteins and peptides were speculated as its possible binding substances in biological matrices. It is difficult to compare the published data from previous studies due to the inconsistent analytical methods and components of BMAA. The binding characteristics of BMAA should be focused on to improve our understanding of its health risk to human health in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Guowang Yan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Xianyao Zheng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China.
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3
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Weeks RD, Banack SA, Howell S, Thunga P, Metcalf JS, Green AJ, Cox PA, Planchart A. The Effects of Long-term, Low-dose β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) Exposures in Adult SOD G93R Transgenic Zebrafish. Neurotox Res 2023; 41:481-495. [PMID: 37552461 PMCID: PMC11216512 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-023-00658-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023]
Abstract
β-N-Methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) is a non-proteinogenic amino acid produced by cyanobacteria, which has been implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). It is postulated that chronic exposure to BMAA can lead to formation of protein aggregates, oxidative stress, and/or excitotoxicity, which are mechanisms involved in the etiology of ALS. While specific genetic mutations are identified in some instances of ALS, it is likely that a combination of genetic and environmental factors, such as exposure to the neurotoxin BMAA, contributes to disease. We used a transgenic zebrafish with an ALS-associated mutation, compared with wild-type fish to explore the potential neurotoxic effects of BMAA through chronic long-term exposures. While our results revealed low concentrations of BMAA in the brains of exposed fish, we found no evidence of decreased swim performance or behavioral differences that might be reflective of neurodegenerative disease. Further research is needed to determine if chronic BMAA exposure in adult zebrafish is a suitable model to study neurodegenerative disease initiation and/or progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan D. Weeks
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
- Program in Toxicology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Sandra A. Banack
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Institute for Ethnomedicine, Box 3464, Jackson, WY 83001, USA
| | - Shaunacee Howell
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Preethi Thunga
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - James S. Metcalf
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Institute for Ethnomedicine, Box 3464, Jackson, WY 83001, USA
| | - Adrian J. Green
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
- Program in Toxicology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Paul A. Cox
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Institute for Ethnomedicine, Box 3464, Jackson, WY 83001, USA
| | - Antonio Planchart
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
- Program in Toxicology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
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4
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Nugumanova G, Ponomarev ED, Askarova S, Fasler-Kan E, Barteneva NS. Freshwater Cyanobacterial Toxins, Cyanopeptides and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15030233. [PMID: 36977124 PMCID: PMC10057253 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15030233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria produce a wide range of structurally diverse cyanotoxins and bioactive cyanopeptides in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems. The health significance of these metabolites, which include genotoxic- and neurotoxic agents, is confirmed by continued associations between the occurrence of animal and human acute toxic events and, in the long term, by associations between cyanobacteria and neurodegenerative diseases. Major mechanisms related to the neurotoxicity of cyanobacteria compounds include (1) blocking of key proteins and channels; (2) inhibition of essential enzymes in mammalian cells such as protein phosphatases and phosphoprotein phosphatases as well as new molecular targets such as toll-like receptors 4 and 8. One of the widely discussed implicated mechanisms includes a misincorporation of cyanobacterial non-proteogenic amino acids. Recent research provides evidence that non-proteinogenic amino acid BMAA produced by cyanobacteria have multiple effects on translation process and bypasses the proof-reading ability of the aminoacyl-tRNA-synthetase. Aberrant proteins generated by non-canonical translation may be a factor in neuronal death and neurodegeneration. We hypothesize that the production of cyanopeptides and non-canonical amino acids is a more general mechanism, leading to mistranslation, affecting protein homeostasis, and targeting mitochondria in eukaryotic cells. It can be evolutionarily ancient and initially developed to control phytoplankton communities during algal blooms. Outcompeting gut symbiotic microorganisms may lead to dysbiosis, increased gut permeability, a shift in blood-brain-barrier functionality, and eventually, mitochondrial dysfunction in high-energy demanding neurons. A better understanding of the interaction between cyanopeptides metabolism and the nervous system will be crucial to target or to prevent neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galina Nugumanova
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
| | - Eugene D Ponomarev
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
| | - Sholpan Askarova
- Center for Life Sciences, National Laboratory Astana, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
| | - Elizaveta Fasler-Kan
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Children's Hospital, Inselspital Bern, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Natasha S Barteneva
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
- The Environment & Resource Efficiency Cluster (EREC), Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
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5
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No β-N-Methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) Was Detected in Stranded Cetaceans from Galicia (North-West Spain). JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/jmse10030314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA), a non-proteinogenic amino acid produced by several species of both prokaryotic (cyanobacteria) and eukaryotic (diatoms) microorganisms, has been proposed to be associated with the development of neurodegenerative diseases. At first, BMAA appeared to be ubiquitously present worldwide in various organisms, from aquatic and terrestrial food webs. However, recent studies, using detection methods based on mass spectrometry, instead of fluorescence detection, suggest that the trophic transfer of BMAA is debatable. This study evaluated BMAA in 22 cetaceans of three different species (Phocoena phocoena, n = 8, Delphinus delphis, n = 8, and Tursiops truncatus, n = 6), found stranded in North-West Spain. BMAA analysis of the liver, kidney, or muscle tissues via sensitive liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry did not reveal the presence of this compound or its isomers. The absence recorded in this study highlights the need to better understand the trophic transfer of BMAA and its anatomical distribution in marine mammals.
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Sun J, Zhou S, Sheng D, Li N, Wang J, Jiang C. Elimination of β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) during UV/chlorine process: Influence factors, transformation pathway and DBP formation. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 284:131426. [PMID: 34323795 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
As a new cyanobacterial neurotoxin generated by cyanobacteria, BMAA was closely related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-parkinsonism dementia complex (ALS/PDC). In this study, the degradation of BMAA by UV/chlorine process was investigated under the impacts of chlorine dosage, NOM dosage, pH and alkalinity. Results showed that only 10% of BMAA was removed by UV irradiation and 46.8% by chlorination in 5 min, however, 98.6% of BMAA was removed by UV/chlorine process in 5 min. The reaction rates were increased under alkaline conditions, but all achieved complete degradation in 5 min. Besides, HCO3- had slight inhibition, while NOM had significant inhibition on the degradation of BMAA. Furthermore, based on the detected degradation products of BMAA during UV/chlorine process, the possible degradation pathways were concluded. Overall, outcomes of this study exhibited that the use of the UV/chlorine process for BMAA degradation was appropriate in practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julong Sun
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Dongting Lake Aquatic Eco-Environmental Control and Restoration of Hunan Province, School of Hydraulic Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, 410114, China
| | - Shiqing Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China.
| | - Da Sheng
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China
| | - Nan Li
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China
| | - Jue Wang
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China
| | - Changbo Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Dongting Lake Aquatic Eco-Environmental Control and Restoration of Hunan Province, School of Hydraulic Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, 410114, China
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7
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Ra D, Sa B, Sl B, Js M, Sj M, DA D, Ew S, O K, Eb B, Ad C, Vx T, Gg G, Pa C, Dc M, Wg B. Is Exposure to BMAA a Risk Factor for Neurodegenerative Diseases? A Response to a Critical Review of the BMAA Hypothesis. Neurotox Res 2021; 39:81-106. [PMID: 33547590 PMCID: PMC7904546 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-020-00302-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In a literature survey, Chernoff et al. (2017) dismissed the hypothesis that chronic exposure to β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) may be a risk factor for progressive neurodegenerative disease. They question the growing scientific literature that suggests the following: (1) BMAA exposure causes ALS/PDC among the indigenous Chamorro people of Guam; (2) Guamanian ALS/PDC shares clinical and neuropathological features with Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and ALS; (3) one possible mechanism for protein misfolds is misincorporation of BMAA into proteins as a substitute for L-serine; and (4) chronic exposure to BMAA through diet or environmental exposures to cyanobacterial blooms can cause neurodegenerative disease. We here identify multiple errors in their critique including the following: (1) their review selectively cites the published literature; (2) the authors reported favorably on HILIC methods of BMAA detection while the literature shows significant matrix effects and peak coelution in HILIC that may prevent detection and quantification of BMAA in cyanobacteria; (3) the authors build alternative arguments to the BMAA hypothesis, rather than explain the published literature which, to date, has been unable to refute the BMAA hypothesis; and (4) the authors erroneously attribute methods to incorrect studies, indicative of a failure to carefully consider all relevant publications. The lack of attention to BMAA research begins with the review's title which incorrectly refers to BMAA as a "non-essential" amino acid. Research regarding chronic exposure to BMAA as a cause of human neurodegenerative diseases is emerging and requires additional resources, validation, and research. Here, we propose strategies for improvement in the execution and reporting of analytical methods and the need for additional and well-executed inter-lab comparisons for BMAA quantitation. We emphasize the need for optimization and validation of analytical methods to ensure that they are fit-for-purpose. Although there remain gaps in the literature, an increasingly large body of data from multiple independent labs using orthogonal methods provides increasing evidence that chronic exposure to BMAA may be a risk factor for neurological illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dunlop Ra
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Institute for Ethnomedicine, Jackson, WY, USA.
| | - Banack Sa
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Institute for Ethnomedicine, Jackson, WY, USA
| | - Bishop Sl
- Lewis Research Group, Faculty of Science, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Metcalf Js
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Institute for Ethnomedicine, Jackson, WY, USA
| | - Murch Sj
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Davis DA
- Department of Neurology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Stommel Ew
- Department of Neurology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | - Karlsson O
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Brittebo Eb
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Tan Vx
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University Centre for Motor Neuron Disease Research, Macquarie University, Ryde, Australia
| | - Guillemin Gg
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University Centre for Motor Neuron Disease Research, Macquarie University, Ryde, Australia
| | - Cox Pa
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Institute for Ethnomedicine, Jackson, WY, USA
| | - Mash Dc
- Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | - Bradley Wg
- Department of Neurology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
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Pierozan P, Cattani D, Karlsson O. Hippocampal neural stem cells are more susceptible to the neurotoxin BMAA than primary neurons: effects on apoptosis, cellular differentiation, neurite outgrowth, and DNA methylation. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:910. [PMID: 33099583 PMCID: PMC7585576 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-03093-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Developmental exposure to the environmental neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA), a proposed risk factor for neurodegenerative disease, can induce long-term cognitive impairments and neurodegeneration in rats. While rodent studies have demonstrated a low transfer of BMAA to the adult brain, this toxin is capable to cross the placental barrier and accumulate in the fetal brain. Here, we investigated the differential susceptibility of primary neuronal cells and neural stem cells from fetal rat hippocampus to BMAA toxicity. Exposure to 250 µM BMAA induced cell death in neural stem cells through caspase-independent apoptosis, while the proliferation of primary neurons was reduced only at 3 mM BMAA. At the lowest concentrations tested (50 and 100 µM), BMAA disrupted neural stem cell differentiation and impaired neurite development in neural stem cell-derived neurons (e.g., reduced neurite length, the number of processes and branches per cell). BMAA induced no alterations of the neurite outgrowth in primary neurons. This demonstrates that neural stem cells are more susceptible to BMAA exposure than primary neurons. Importantly, the changes induced by BMAA in neural stem cells were mitotically inherited to daughter cells. The persistent nature of the BMAA-induced effects may be related to epigenetic alterations that interfere with the neural stem cell programming, as BMAA exposure reduced the global DNA methylation in the cells. These findings provide mechanistic understanding of how early-life exposure to BMAA may lead to adverse long-term consequences, and potentially predispose for neurodevelopmental disorders or neurodegenerative disease later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Pierozan
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, 114 18, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Daiane Cattani
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, 114 18, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Oskar Karlsson
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, 114 18, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Transfer of the Neurotoxin β- N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) in the Agro-Aqua Cycle. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18050244. [PMID: 32384637 PMCID: PMC7281744 DOI: 10.3390/md18050244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurotoxic non-protein amino acid β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) is connected to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. BMAA has been shown to accumulate in aquatic ecosystems, and filter-feeding molluscs seem particularly susceptible to BMAA accumulation. The blue mussels farmed along the Swedish coastline in the Baltic Sea are, due to their small size, exclusively used to produce feed for chicken and fish in the agro-aqua cycle. We have investigated the possible biotransfer of BMAA from mussels, via mussel-based feed, into chickens. Chickens were divided into two groups, the control and the treatment. BMAA was extracted from the muscle, liver, brain, and eye tissues in both chicken groups; a UPLC-MS/MS method was subsequently used to quantify BMAA. The results indicate detectable concentrations of BMAA in both chicken groups. However, the BMAA concentration in chicken was 5.65 times higher in the treatment group than the control group, with the highest concentration found in muscle tissue extracted from the treatment group chickens. These data suggest that there is a BMAA transfer route within the agro-aqua cycle, so further investigation is recommended before using mussel-based feed in the chicken industry.
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The Cyanotoxin and Non-protein Amino Acid β-Methylamino-L-Alanine (L-BMAA) in the Food Chain: Incorporation into Proteins and Its Impact on Human Health. Neurotox Res 2019; 36:602-611. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-019-00089-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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11
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Wu X, Wu H, Gu X, Zhang R, Ye J, Sheng Q. Biomagnification characteristics and health risk assessment of the neurotoxin BMAA in freshwater aquaculture products of Taihu Lake Basin, China. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 229:332-340. [PMID: 31078890 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.04.210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In freshwater aquaculture ecosystems with high-frequency occurrences of cyanobacteria blooms, a chronic neurotoxic cyanobacteria toxin, β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA), is a new pollutant that affects the normal growth, development, and reproduction of aquaculture organisms. BMAA poses a great threat to the food quality and food safety of aquatic products. In this paper, high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was used to detect the contents of BMAA in the edible portions of six representative freshwater aquaculture products (Corbicula fluminea, Anodonta arcaeformis, Macrobrachium nipponense, Eriocheir sinensis, Ctenopharyngodon idella, and Mylopharyngodon piceus) from Taihu Lake Basin in China. Noncarcinogenic health risks were assessed with reference to the model recommended by the International Environmental Modelling and Software Society and based on the biomagnification characteristics of BMAA in the various aquaculture products investigated by the stable nitrogen isotope technique. The average BMAA concentrations in the edible portions of the six freshwater culture products were from 2.05 ± 1.40 to 4.21 ± 1.26 μg g-1 dry weight (DW), and the difference was significant (p < 0.05), such a difference increased with the increase in the trophic level in the aquaculture products. Although a biomagnification indication was observed, the trophic magnification factor (TMF) was only 1.20 which exhibited a relatively low biomagnification efficiency. The annual health risk values of BMAA in all the measured aquatic products were within the maximum tolerable range (<1 × 10-6 a-1), and the health risk increased with the increase in the trophic level. The risk values of BMAA in the six freshwater aquaculture products for children was slightly higher than the negligible level (<1 × 10-7 a-1), thus there might have potential health risks for children's long-term consumption. Considering China's national conditions, the guidance values of BMAA based on the quality and safety of freshwater aquaculture products were proposed to be 7.2 μg g-1 DW for adults and 1.8 μg g-1 DW for children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Resources Conservation and Development Technology Research, College of Life Sciences, Huzhou University, Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province, 313000, China.
| | - Hao Wu
- Environmental Protection Monitoring Centre Station, Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province, 313000, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Gu
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Resources Conservation and Development Technology Research, College of Life Sciences, Huzhou University, Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province, 313000, China
| | - Rongfei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Resources Conservation and Development Technology Research, College of Life Sciences, Huzhou University, Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province, 313000, China
| | - Jinyun Ye
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Resources Conservation and Development Technology Research, College of Life Sciences, Huzhou University, Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province, 313000, China
| | - Qiang Sheng
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Resources Conservation and Development Technology Research, College of Life Sciences, Huzhou University, Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province, 313000, China
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12
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Esterhuizen-Londt M, Pflugmacher S. Vegetables cultivated with exposure to pure and naturally occurring β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) via irrigation. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 169:357-361. [PMID: 30508701 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Revised: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA), a potent neurotoxin, has been demonstrated in various food webs. It is alarming as this intensification of BMAA will result in exposure to higher concentrations from a direct cyanobacterial source. As more food items are being identified as a source of BMAA and with the large variations in BMAA content, the aim of the present study was to evaluate BMAA uptake by, and accumulation in, two commonly consumed vegetables, Lactuca sativa and Allium fistulosum. Plants exposed to pure BMAA in controlled laboratory experiments, as well as vegetables naturally irrigated with water containing a BMAA producing cyanobacterial bloom were evaluated during growth and ripening. In the laboratory exposures, free BMAA was detected in both the edible ripe parts of L. sativa and A. fistulosum after 60 days of exposure to a total of 4.5 µg BMAA. However, in the bloom exposure samples no BMAA could be detected in the ripe vegetables of A. fistulosum, Cucurbita pepo, or Brassica rapa chinensis. The study emphasises the need to further screen items for BMAA to understand the human exposure risk as well as the difference between BMAA uptake patterns with free BMAA and that contained in cyanobacterial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maranda Esterhuizen-Londt
- University of Helsinki, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Ecosystems and Environment Research programme, Niemenkatu 73, Lahti FI-15140, Finland.
| | - Stephan Pflugmacher
- University of Helsinki, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Ecosystems and Environment Research programme, Niemenkatu 73, Lahti FI-15140, Finland; Korean Institute of Science and Technology Europe (KIST Europe), Joint Laboratory of Applied Ecotoxicology, Campus 7.1, Saarbrücken, Germany
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Pierozan P, Andersson M, Brandt I, Karlsson O. The environmental neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine inhibits melatonin synthesis in primary pinealocytes and a rat model. J Pineal Res 2018. [PMID: 29528516 DOI: 10.1111/jpi.12488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The environmental neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) is a glutamate receptor agonist that can induce oxidative stress and has been implicated as a possible risk factor for neurodegenerative disease. Detection of BMAA in mussels, crustaceans, and fish illustrates that the sources of human exposure to this toxin are more abundant than previously anticipated. The aim of this study was to determine uptake of BMAA in the pineal gland and subsequent effects on melatonin production in primary pinealocyte cultures and a rat model. Autoradiographic imaging of 10-day-old male rats revealed a high and selective uptake in the pineal gland at 30 minutes to 24 hours after 14 C-L-BMAA administration (0.68 mg/kg). Primary pinealocyte cultures exposed to 0.05-3 mmol/L BMAA showed a 57%-93% decrease in melatonin synthesis in vitro. Both the metabotropic glutamate receptor 3 (mGluR3) antagonist Ly341495 and the protein kinase C (PKC) activator phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate prevented the decrease in melatonin secretion, suggesting that BMAA inhibits melatonin synthesis by mGluR3 activation and PKC inhibition. Serum analysis revealed a 45% decrease in melatonin concentration in neonatal rats assessed 2 weeks after BMAA administration (460 mg/kg) and confirmed an inhibition of melatonin synthesis in vivo. Given that melatonin is a most important neuroprotective molecule in the brain, the etiology of BMAA-induced neurodegeneration may include mechanisms beyond direct excitotoxicity and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Pierozan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Marie Andersson
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ingvar Brandt
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Oskar Karlsson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Main BJ, Bowling LC, Padula MP, Bishop DP, Mitrovic SM, Guillemin GJ, Rodgers KJ. Detection of the suspected neurotoxin β-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) in cyanobacterial blooms from multiple water bodies in Eastern Australia. HARMFUL ALGAE 2018; 74:10-18. [PMID: 29724339 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Revised: 02/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The emerging toxin β-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) has been linked to the development of a number of neurodegenerative diseases in humans including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. BMAA has been found to be produced by a range of cyanobacteria, diatoms, and dinoflagellates worldwide, and is present in freshwater, saltwater, and terrestrial ecosystems. Surface scum samples were collected from waterways in rural and urban New South Wales, Australia and algal species identified. Reverse phase liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was used to analyse sixteen cyanobacterial scum for the presence of BMAA as well as its toxic structural isomer 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (2,4-DAB). BMAA was detected in ten of the samples analysed, and 2,4-DAB in all sixteen. The presence of these toxins in water used for agriculture raises concerns for public health and food security in Australia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan J Main
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia
| | - Lee C Bowling
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia; DPI Water, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Menangle, NSW, 2568, Australia
| | - Matthew P Padula
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia
| | - David P Bishop
- Elemental Bio-imaging Facility, School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia
| | - Simon M Mitrovic
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia
| | - Gilles J Guillemin
- MND Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Kenneth J Rodgers
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia.
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Nunn PB. 50 years of research on α-amino-β-methylaminopropionic acid (β-methylaminoalanine). PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2017; 144:271-281. [PMID: 29102875 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The isolation of α-amino-β-methylaminopropionic acid from seeds of Cycas circinalis (now C. micronesica Hill) resulted from a purposeful attempt to establish the cause of the profound neurological disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/parkinsonism/dementia, that existed in high frequency amongst the inhabitants of the western Pacific island of Guam (Guam ALS/PD). In the 50 years since its discovery the amino acid has been a stimulus, and sometimes a subject of mockery, for generations of scientists in a remarkably diverse range of subject areas. The number of citations of the original paper has risen in the five decades from a few to 120 within the decade 2007-2016 and continues at a high rate into the next decade. The reasons for this remarkable outcome are discussed and examples from the literature are used to illustrate the wide range of scientific interest that the original paper generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter B Nunn
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, St Michael's Building, White Swan Road, Portsmouth, Hampshire PO1 2DT, UK.
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