Proteomic and enzymatic response under Cr(VI) overload in yeast isolated from textile-dye industry effluent

Proteomics insights into the fungal-mediated bioremediation of environmental contaminants

As anthropogenic activities continue to introduce various contaminants into the environment, the need for effective monitoring and bioremediation strategies is critical. Fungi, with their diverse enzymatic arsenal, offer promising solutions for the biotransformation of many pollutants. While conventional research reports on ligninolytic, oxidoreductive, and cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, the vast potential of fungi, with approximately 10 345 protein sequences per species, remains largely untapped. This review describes recent advancements in fungal proteomics instruments as well as software and highlights their detoxification mechanisms and biochemical pathways. Additionally, it highlights lesser-known fungal enzymes with potential applications in environmental biotechnology. By reviewing the benefits and challenges associated with proteomics tools, we hope to summarize and promote the studies of fungi and fungal proteins relevant in the environment.

Removal mechanisms of aqueous Cr(VI) by anaerobic fermentation sludge

After fermentation, activated sludge contains many acid-producing bacteria and their metabolites, which have a good reducing effect. Various active groups (e.g., hydroxyl, amino, carboxyl, and phosphate) on microbial cell surfaces can adsorb heavy metals through complexation or chelation, forming heavy metal precipitates and thereby reducing the toxicity of heavy metals. However, the effects and mechanisms of using sludge after anaerobic fermentation to remove Cr(VI) are unclear, such as the dominance of direct versus indirect biological reduction, the contribution of abiotic effects, and the influence of fermentation conditions. This paper compares Cr(VI) removal in fermented and unfermented sludges. After fermentation for 24 h, 99.9% of the Cr(VI) (50 mg/L) in anaerobic sludge was removed within 7 h, which was twice the rate in unfermented activated sludge. A series of comparative experiments demonstrated that Cr(VI) removal primarily occurred through biological effects (about 92%), which included biological reduction and biosorption. 16SrRNA gene sequencing revealed that Cr(VI) transformation primarily occurred through direct biological reduction, with the related genera being Trichococcus, Acetobacter, Aeromonas, and Tolumonas. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy results showed that the C = O and C-O functionalities on sludge were likely involved in the Cr(VI) conversion. Majority of the Cr(VI) in the system was reduced to Cr(III) and existed in the suspension, with a small amount deposited on the sludge surface. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results indicated that the majority of Cr was present as reduced Cr(III) on the sludge. These results demonstrate that after fermentation in an aqueous environment, activated sludge is an effective medium for the remediation of Cr(VI). These results are useful for designing a green and sustainable bioreduction system for the remediation of Cr(VI)-polluted water.

Immobilization of diphenylcarbazide on paper-based analytical devices for the pre-concentration and detection of chromium VI in water samples

A novel approach using a smartphone for the detection of Cr (VI) has been developed. In this context, two different platforms were designed for the detection of Cr (VI). The first one was synthesized via a crosslinking reaction of chitosan with 1,5-Diphenylcarbazide (DPC-CS). The obtained material was integrated into a paper to develop a new paper-based analytical device (DPC-CS-PAD). The DPC-CS-PAD exhibited high specificity toward Cr (VI). The second platform (DPC-Nylon PAD) was prepared by covalent immobilization of DPC onto a Nylon paper and then its analytical performances regarding Cr (VI) extraction and detection were evaluated. DPC-CS-PAD presented a linear range of 0.1-5 ppm with detection and quantification limits of about 0.04 and 0.12 ppm, respectively. The DPC-Nylon-PAD exhibited a linear response of 0.1-2.5 ppm with detection and quantification limits of 0.06 and 0.2 ppm, respectively. Furthermore, the developed platforms were effectively applied for testing the effect of the loading solution volume for trace Cr (IV) detection. For the DPC-CS material, a volume of 20 mL allowed the detection of 4 ppb of Cr (VI). In the case of DPC-Nylon-PAD, the loading volume of 1 mL permitted the detection of the critical concentration of Cr (VI) in water.

Tolerance of phyllospheric Wickerhamomyces anomalus to BDE-3 and heavy metals

Few research have focused on the potential microorganism and gene resources for plant resistance to polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) and heavy metal (HM) co-contamination. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of phyllospheric Wickerhamomyces anomalus bioremediation ability on PBDE and HM co-contamination. The results showed that the toleration capability of W. anomalus to cadmium (Cd2+) was higher than that to chromium (Cr) or 4-bromodiphenyl ether (BDE-3) contamination. The threshold levels of W. anomalus tolerance to BDE-3, Cd2+, and Cr were 30 mg/L, 500 mg/L, 30 mg/L, respectively. The use of the higher concentration of BDE-3 (30 mg/L) as a carbon source may improve tolerance to Cd2+ and Cr (10 mg/L Cd2+ and 10 mg/L Cr). Overexpression of Wapdr15 gene of ABCG subfamily from W. anomalus improved the tolerance to BDE-3 (10 mg/mL) and Cd2+ (0.5 mg/mL) significantly in transgenic tobacco lines. The synergism effect of BDE-3 and Cd2+ stress existed similarly in W. anomalus and transgenic lines. The findings suggest that W. anomalus should be taken into account for providing an efficient method in improving crops' tolerance during PBDE and HM co-contamination in soil.

Physiological mechanism of the response to Cr(VI) in the aerobic denitrifying ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus sp.1

Pisolithus sp. 1 (P sp. 1) is an ectomycorrhizal fungus (EMF) with a strong Cr(VI) tolerance and reduction ability. The noninvasive microttest technique (NMT), real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR), and the three-dimensional excitation-emission matrix (3D-EEM) were used to deeply explore the physiological mechanism of the P sp. 1 response to Cr(VI) and investigate the relationship between Cr(VI) reduction and denitrification in P sp. Cr(VI) induced the strongest elevations in nitrate reductase (NR) activity and NO production in the mycelia after treatment with Cr(VI) for 48 h under aerobic conditions. The NR inhibitor tungstate significantly inhibited Cr(VI) reduction, proton efflux and the expression of the NR gene (niaD) and NiR gene (niiA). In addition, NO was generated via NR-regulated denitrification. Combined treatments with Cr(VI) and the NO scavenger carboxy-PTIO (cPTIO) significantly increased O₂^-, H₂O₂ and MDA contents and reduced SDH, CAT, GSH, GR and GSNOR activity. Therefore, the NR-driven aerobic denitrifying process requires protons, and the generated NO reduces the oxidative stress effect of Cr(VI) on mycelia by reducing ROS accumulation and lipid peroxidation, enhancing mycelial and CAT activity, and promoting GSH recycling and regeneration. Psp.1 can also secrete humic acid-like and protein-like substances to combine with Cr(III) in a culture system.

Mechanism of Cr (VI) reduction by Pichia guilliermondii ZJH-1

Background

Chromium is one of the most used toxic heavy metals. A large amount of chromium waste is discharged into the environment every year, causing serious environmental pollution, especially the pollution of soil and water by hexavalent chromium. Eliminating hexavalent chromium is the primary challenge to achieve a pollution-free environment.

Objectives

This study aims to understand the mechanism of Pichia guilliermondii's reduction of hexavalent chromium through enzymatic characteristic, oxidative stress response, and reduction product.

Material and Methods

The strain Pichia guilliermondii ZJH-1 was isolated and stored in our laboratory. The hexavalent chromium uses 1,5-diphenyl carbazide method (DPC) to measure. The UV spectrophotometer was used to measure the intracellular antioxidant enzyme activity, and the kit was used to measure the activity of catalase and glutathione reductase. The reduction products were analyzed by ultraviolet full-wavelength scanning and FTIR.

Results

The reduction of hexavalent chromium by ZJH-1 is accompanied by an increase in active oxygen and antioxidant levels. Chromate reductase mainly exists in the extracellular fluid, and the carboxyl, amide, hydroxide and other groups of the cell wall are involved in the bioremediation of Cr(VI) by complexing with Cr(VI) and Cr(III). After ZJH-1 was treated with different concentrations of Cr(VI), the expression of proteins with molecular weights of 15 kDa, 18 kDa, 35 kDa, 62 kDa, and 115 kDa increased significantly. This strain is the most suitable for chromate reductase (CChR). The optimum temperature is 40℃ and the optimum pH is 7.0. Cu2+ can enhance the activity of chromate reductase. At the optimum temperature and pH, the chromate reductase Km of this strain is 0.40 μmol and Vmax is 14.47 μmoL.L^-1·min^-1.

Conclusions

The bioremediation of Cr(VI) by Pichia guilliermondii ZJH-1 is attributable to the reduction product (Cr(III)) that can be removed in the precipitate and can be fixed on the cell surface and accumulated in the cell.

Transcriptome analysis reveals antioxidant defense mechanisms in the red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkia after exposure to chromium

Chromium (Cr) as a chromate anion has a strong redox capacity that seriously threatens the ecological environment and human health. Cr can contaminate water and impart toxicity to aquatic species. Procambarus clarkii is an important food source that once represented a large proportion of the aquaculture industry due to its rapid reproduction and high economic value. However, there have been reports on the death of P. clarkii due to heavy metal pollution. The underlying mechanism regarding heavy metal toxicity was studied in this paper. The transcriptome data of hemocytes extracted from P. clarkii injected with Cr were analyzed by high-throughput sequencing and compared to the control group. In total, 48,128,748 clean reads were obtained in the treatment group and 56,480,556 clean reads were obtained in the control group. The reads were assembled using Trinity and the identified unigenes were then annotated. Then, 421 differentially-expressed genes (DEGs) were found, 170 of which were upregulated and 251 downregulated. Many of these genes were found to be related to glutathione metabolism and transportation. The glutathione metabolic pathway of P. clarkii was thus activated by Cr exposure to detoxify and maintain body function. Validation of DEGs with quantitative real-time PCR confirms the changes in gene expression. Thus, this study provides data supporting a glutathione-focused response of P. clarkii to exposure to heavy metals.

iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomic reveals proteomic changes in Serratia sp. CM01 and mechanism of Cr(Ⅵ) resistance

OBJECTIVE

Serratia sp. CM01 is a wild strain with the resistance and reduction ability of chromium(Ⅵ). The aim of this study it to investigate the underlying mechanisms of the Cr(Ⅵ) tolerance and reduction of strain CM01, and to explore its response to environmental pollution pressure at the molecular level.

METHODS

The iTRAQ technique was utilized to investigate the differentially expressed protein patterns related to the Cr(Ⅵ)-resistance in wild-type strain CM01 and domesticated CM01. RT-qPCR was used to verify the expression levels of several functional genes. The cell surface hydrophobicity and autoaggregation, the intracellular glucose content, and the total superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were determined.

RESULTS

In total, 2750 proteins were detected and identified in WT CM01 and domesticated CM01. Compared with WT CM01, the iTRAQ results of 646 proteins were found to be significantly differentially expressed in domesticated CM01. There were 343 up-regulated and 303 down-regulated proteins, which mainly related to carbohydrate metabolism, stress responses, amino acid metabolism and some other systems. RT-qPCR results showed that the expression level of seven genes in domesticated CM01 were consistent with the iTRAQ proteomic profiles. The cell surface hydrophobicity, self-aggregation, intracellular glucose content and total SOD activity of domesticated CM01 with Cr(Ⅵ) treatment were significantly higher than without Cr(Ⅵ) treatment.

CONCLUSION

Domesticated CM01 displayed a complex biological network to exhibit the tolerance of Cr(Ⅵ), which may be attributed to the following aspects: (a) CM01 reduced the consumption of glucose by inhibiting the metabolism of carbohydrates, which was an energy-saving survival mode. (b) The inositol phosphate metabolism pathway played an important role. (c) Oxidative stress proteins enhanced the adaptability. (d) CM01 enhanced biosynthesis of hydrophobic amino acids to resistance to Cr(Ⅵ). (e) Several key systems and proteins, such as UvrABC system, Lon protease, porin OmpC, also may play an important role.

Assessment of hexavalent chromium (VI) biosorption competence of indigenous Aspergillus tubingensis AF3 isolated from bauxite mine tailing

The intention of this research was to find the most eminent metal tolerant and absorbing autochthonous fungal species from the waste dump of a bauxite mine. Out of the 4 (BI-1, BI-II, BI-III, and BI-IV) predominant isolates, BI-II had an excellent metal tolerance potential against most of the metals in the subsequent order: Cr(VI) (1500), Cu(II) (600), Pb(II) (500), and Zn(II) (500-1500 μg mL^-1). BI-II had shown tolerance to Cr(VI) up to 1500 mg L^-1. The excellent metal tolerant isolate was characterized and identified as Aspergillus tubingensis AF3 through 18S rRNA sequencing method and submitted to GenBank and received an accession number (MN901243). A. tubingensis AF3 had the efficiency to absorb Cr(VI) and Cu(II) at <70 & 46.3% respectively under the standard growth conditions. Under the optimized conditions (25 °C, pH 7.0, 0.5% of dextrose, and 12 days of incubation), A. tubingensis AF3 absorbed 74.48% of Cr(VI) in 12 days (reduction occurred as 822.3, 719.13, 296.66, and 255.2 mg L^-1 of Cr(VI) on the 3^rd, the 6^th, the 9^th and the 12^th day, respectively). The adsorbed metal was sequestered in the mycelia of the fungus in a precipitated form; it was confirmed by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) analyses. The possible biosorption mechanisms were analyzed by Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis, the results showed the presence of N-H primary amines (1649.98 cm^-1) and Alkanes (914.30 cm^-1) in the cell wall of the fungus, while being treated with Cr(VI) they supported and enhanced the Cr(VI) absorption. The entire results concluded that the biomass of A. tubingensis AF3 had the potential to absorb a high concentration of Cr(VI).

Genomic characterization and proteomic analysis of the halotolerant Micrococcus luteus SA211 in response to the presence of lithium

Micrococcus luteus SA211, isolated from the Salar del Hombre Muerto in Argentina, developed responses that allowed its survival and growth in presence of high concentrations of lithium chloride (LiCl). In this research, analysis of total genome sequencing and a comparative proteomic approach were performed to investigate the responses of this bacterium to the presence of Li. Through proteomic analysis, we found differentially synthesized proteins in growth media without LiCl (DM) and with 10 (D10) and 30 g/L LiCl (D30). Bi-dimensional separation of total protein extracts allowed the identification of 17 over-synthesized spots when growth occurred in D30, five in D10, and six in both media with added LiCl. The results obtained showed different metabolic pathways involved in the ability of M. luteus SA211 to interact with Li. These pathways include defense against oxidative stress, pigment and protein synthesis, energy production, and osmolytes biosynthesis and uptake. Furthermore, mono-dimensional gel electrophoresis revealed differential protein synthesis at equivalent NaCl and LiCl concentrations, suggesting that this strain would be able to develop different responses depending on the nature of the ion. Moreover, the percentage of proteins with acidic pI predicted and observed was highlighted, indicating an adaptation to saline environments. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report showing the relationship between protein synthesis and genome sequence analysis in response to Li, showing the great biotechnological potential that native microorganisms present, especially those isolated from extreme environments.

Mycoremediation of heavy metals: processes, mechanisms, and affecting factors

Industrial processes and mining of coal and metal ores are generating a number of threats by polluting natural water bodies. Contamination of heavy metals (HMs) in water and soil is the most serious problem caused by industrial and mining processes and other anthropogenic activities. The available literature suggests that existing conventional technologies are costly and generated hazardous waste that necessitates disposal. So, there is a need for cheap and green approaches for the treatment of such contaminated wastewater. Bioremediation is considered a sustainable way where fungi seem to be good bioremediation agents to treat HM-polluted wastewater. Fungi have high adsorption and accumulation capacity of HMs and can be potentially utilized. The most important biomechanisms which are involved in HM tolerance and removal by fungi are bioaccumulation, bioadsorption, biosynthesis, biomineralisation, bioreduction, bio-oxidation, extracellular precipitation, intracellular precipitation, surface sorption, etc. which vary from species to species. However, the time, pH, temperature, concentration of HMs, the dose of fungal biomass, and shaking rate are the most influencing factors that affect the bioremediation of HMs and vary with characteristics of the fungi and nature of the HMs. In this review, we have discussed the application of fungi, involved tolerance and removal strategies in fungi, and factors affecting the removal of HMs.

Knockdown of α-enolase (Eno1) genes by RNAi does not increase the sensitivity of Propsilocerus akamusi to cadmium stress

α-enolase (Eno1) is a multifunctional enzyme which can as a stress protein under various environmental stresses. Recent researches also reported that Eno1 appears to have Cd²⁺ stress-related functions in cadmium tolerant plants. Our previous study inferred that the Eno1 gene might play an important role in the response of Propsilocerus akamusi to exogenous Cd²⁺. However, reports on the role of the Eno1 gene in coping with cadmium stress are still limited. In this study, we evaluated the roles of PaEno1 in the tolerance of P. akamusi to Cd²⁺ using RNAi technology and the response of recombinant proteins of PaEno1 in an E. coli expression system under Cd²⁺ stress. Our results showed that knockdown of PaEno1 did not increase but reduce the sensitivity of P. akamusi larvae to Cd²⁺ stress. However, bioassays showed the expression of recombinant PaEno1 protein in Rosetta cells enhanced the growth ability of E. coli under Cd²⁺ stress. These results suggested that overexpression of PaEno1 can significantly enhance the tolerance to heavy metal cadmium stresses in E. coli cells. However, knockdown of PaEno1 genes by RNAi does not increase the sensitivity of P. akamusi to cadmium stress.

Application of enhanced bioreduction for hexavalent chromium-polluted groundwater cleanup: Microcosm and microbial diversity studies

Hexavalent chromium (Cr⁶⁺) is a commonly found heavy metal at polluted groundwater sites. In this study, the effectiveness of Cr⁶⁺ bioreduction by the chromium-reducing bacteria was evaluated to remediate Cr⁶⁺-contaminated groundwater. Microcosms were constructed using indigenous microbial consortia from a Cr⁶⁺-contaminated aquifer as the inocula, and slow-releasing emulsified polycolloid-substrate (ES), cane molasses (CM), and nutrient broth (NB) as the primary substrates. The genes responsible for the bioreduction of Cr⁶⁺ and variations in bacterial diversity were evaluated using metagenomics assay. Complete Cr⁶⁺ reduction via the biological mechanism was observed within 80 days using CM as the carbon source under anaerobic processes with the increased trivalent chromium (Cr³⁺) concentrations. Cr⁶⁺ removal efficiencies were 83% and 59% in microcosms using ES and NB as the substrates, respectively. Increased bacterial communities associated with Cr⁶⁺ bioreduction was observed in microcosms treated with CM and ES. Decreased bacterial communities were observed in NB microcosms. Compared to ES, CM was more applicable by indigenous Cr⁶⁺ reduction bacteria and resulted in effective Cr⁶⁺ bioreduction, which was possibly due to the growth of Cr⁶⁺-reduction related bacteria including Sporolactobacillus, Clostridium, and Ensifer. While NB was applied for specific bacterial selection, it might not be appropriate for electron donor application. These results revealed that substrate addition had significant impact on microbial diversities, which affected Cr⁶⁺ bioreduction processes. Results are useful for designing a green and sustainable bioreduction system for Cr⁶⁺-polluted groundwater remediation.

Ca2+ and SO42- accelerate the reduction of Cr(VI) by Penicillium oxalicum SL2

Some ions in soils may affect the growth and metabolism of microorganisms and subsequently alter the remediation efficiency of Cr(VI). Here, the effects of different Ca²⁺ and SO₄^2- levels on the reduction of Cr(VI) by Penicillium oxalicum SL2 were investigated. The results showed that Cr(VI) reduction by P. oxalicum SL2 in potato dextrose liquid (PDL) medium was accelerated by the presence of exogenous Ca²⁺ and SO₄^2-. The Cr(VI) reduction rates were increased by 52.5% (200 mg L^-1 Ca²⁺ treated) and 55.9% (2000 mg L^-1 SO₄^2- treated), respectively. High concentration of Ca²⁺ in medium resulted in the production of calcium oxalate crystals, which was contributed to the adsorption of chromium. In addition, X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) analysis showed that P. oxalicum SL2 could reduce the toxicity of Cr(VI) by synthesizing cysteine (Cys) and reduced glutathione (GSH). The decrease of thiol compounds (Cys and GSH) in P. oxalicum SL2 mycelia treated with SO₄^2- proved the alleviation of oxidative stress. In conclusion, exogenous Ca²⁺ could reduce the damage of Cr(VI) to P. oxalicum SL2 by maintaining the integrity of cell wall, and the addition of SO₄^2- alleviated the Cr(VI) toxicity to P. oxalicum SL2, thus accelerating the reduction of Cr(VI).

Hexavalent chromium stress response, reduction capability and bioremediation potential of Trichoderma sp. isolated from electroplating wastewater

In the present study we are investigating the Cr_(VI) reduction potential of a multi-metal tolerant fungus (isolate CR700); isolated from electroplating wastewater. Based on the ITS region sequencing, the isolate was identified as Trichoderma lixii isolate CR700 and able to tolerate As(2000 mg/L), Ni(1500 mg/L), Zn(1200 mg/L), Cu(1200 mg/L), Cr(1000 mg/L), and 100 mg/L of Pb and Cd evident from tolerance assay. Cr_(VI) reduction experiment was conducted in Erlenmeyer flasks containing different concentration of Cr_(VI) (0-200 mg/L) amended potato dextrose broth medium followed by inoculating with a disk (0.5 cm diameter) of 7 days grown isolate CR700, and achieved a maximum of 99.4% within 120 h at 50 mg/L of Cr_(VI). However, the accumulation of total Cr by isolate CR700 was 2.12 ± 0.15 mg/g of dried biomass at the same concentration after 144 h of exposure. Isolate CR700 showed the capability to reduce Cr_(VI) at different physicochemical stress conditions such as pH, temperature, heavy metals, metabolic inhibitor and also in tannery wastewater. Fungus exhibited multifarious morphological and biochemical response under the exposure of Cr_(VI); the scanning electron microscopic analysis revealed that Cr_(VI) treated mycelia of isolate CR700 comparatively irregular, aggregated and swelled than without treated mycelia which might be due to the tolerance mechanism and vacuolar compartmentation of chromium. Moreover, energy dispersive spectroscopy and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopic analysis exposed the Cr_(III) precipitation on the mycelia surface of isolate CR700 and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopic analysis suggested the contribution of the protein associated functional group in the complexation of Cr_(VI). The phytotoxicity test of fungal treated 100 mg/L of Cr_(VI) supernatant on Vigna radiata and Cicer arietinum revealed the successful detoxification/remediation of Cr_(VI).

Hexavalent chromium reduction ability and bioremediation potential of Aspergillus flavus CR500 isolated from electroplating wastewater

Hexavalent chromium reduction by microbes can mitigate the chromium toxicity to the environment. In the present study Cr_[VI] tolerant fungal isolate (CR500) was isolated from electroplating wastewater, was able to tolerate 800 mg/L of Cr_[VI. Based on the ITS region sequencing, the isolate was identified as Aspergillus flavus CR500, showed multifarious biochemical (reactive oxygen species, antioxidants response and non-protein thiol) and morphological (protrusion less, constriction and swelling/outwards growth in mycelia) response under Cr_[VI] stress. Batch experiment was conducted at different Cr_[VI] concentration (0-200 mg/L) to optimize the Cr_[VI] reduction and removal ability of isolate CR500; results showed 89.1% reduction of Cr_[VI] to Cr_[III] within 24 h and 4.9 ± 0.12 mg of Cr per gram of dried biomass accumulation within 144 h at the concentration of 50 mg/L of Cr_[VI]. However, a maximum of 79.4% removal of Cr was recorded at 5 mg/L within 144 h. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that chromium removal also happened via adsorption/precipitation on the mycelia surface. Fungus treated and without treated 100 mg/L of Cr_[VI] solution was subjected to phytotoxicity test using Vigna radiata seeds and result revealed that A. flavus CR500 successfully detoxified the Cr_[VI] via reduction and removal mechanisms. Isolate CR500 also exhibited efficient bioreduction potential at different temperature (20-40 °C), pH (5.0-9.0), heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu, Mn, Ni and Pb), metabolic inhibitors (phenol and EDTA) and in sterilized tannery effluent that make it a potential candidate for Cr_[VI] bioremediation.