Towards a 3D National Ecological Footprint Geography

Spatiotemporal evolution and decoupling effects of sustainable water resources utilization in the Yellow River Basin: Based on three-dimensional water ecological footprint

Clarifying the spatiotemporal evolution of sustainable water resources utilization (SWU) and its decoupling effects from economic growth (EG) is essential for the effective management of water ecosystems and sustainable development of basins. However, the traditional Ecological Footprint model limits the ability to compare SWU within a basin, and existing studies need to pay more attention to the importance of water renewability in quantifying SWU. Based on the capital flow and capital stock perspectives, this study constructed an evaluation method for SWU and its decoupling effect from EG by combining the three-dimensional Water Ecological Footprint (WEF), sustainable reclassification, and the Tapio model, and explored different types of SWU enhancement strategies. The results indicate that: (1) From 2010 to 2022, the SWU of the Yellow River Basin (YRB) shows a decreasing and then increasing trend and is generally in water ecological deficit, with a lower SWU in the middle and lower reaches. Overall, the per capita WEFsize decreased by 0.73% per year, while the WEFdepth increased by 0.26% per year, the pressure and stress on the SWU of the YRB are still significant. (2) Agricultural freshwater use and domestic greywater discharge dominate the WEF of the basin, and the problem of inversion of the water use structure with the industrial structure is evident. (3) Spatial differentiation within the basin is apparent, and SWU shows a spatial distribution of western strength and eastern weakness, with significant consumption of water capital stock due to insufficient water capital flow as the main reason. (4) Topio decoupling analysis shows that WEF and EG are mainly strongly decoupled, with WEF lagging behind EG; the decoupling relationship between SWU and EG evolves from END-SD-WD, reduces the consumption of water capital stock and increasing water capital flow is a reasonable way to realise its stable strong decoupling. This study is essential for SWU studies of large river basins in arid and semi-arid regions. It provides insights into the sustainable management and rational allocation of water resources in the YRB and other similar basins worldwide.

Aquatic photosynthetic carbon pump driven by periodic temperature variations affects dissolved inorganic carbon and hydrochemical characteristics in a groundwater-fed reservoir

Under the influence of periodic temperature variations, biogeochemical cycling in water bodies is markedly affected by the periodic thermal stratification processes in subtropical reservoirs or lakes. In current studies, there is insufficient research on the influence and mechanism of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) distribution in karst carbon-rich groundwater-fed reservoirs under the coupled effects of thermal structure stratification and the biological carbon pump (BCP) effect. To address this issue, the Dalongdong (DLD) reservoir in the subtropical region of southern China was chosen as the site for long-term monitoring and research on relevant physicochemical parameters of water, DIC, and its stable carbon isotope (δ13CDIC), CO2 emission flux, as well as the reservoir's thermal stratification index. The results show that: (1) the DLD reservoir is a typical warm monomictic reservoir, which exhibits regular variations of mixing period-stratification period-mixing period on a yearly scale due to thermal structure changes; (2) DIC was consumed by aquatic photosynthetic organisms in the epilimnion during the stratification period, leading to a decrease in DIC concentration, partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) and CO2 emission flux, and an increase in stable carbon isotope (δ13CDIC). During the mixing period, the trend was reversed; (3) During the thermal stratification, aquatic photosynthesis and water temperature were the primary factors controlling DIC variations in both the epilimnion and thermocline. Regarding the hypolimnion, calcite dissolution, organic matter decomposition, and water temperature were the dominant controlling factors. These results indicate that although carbon-rich karst groundwater provides a plentiful supply of DIC in the DLD reservoir, its availability is still influenced by variations in the reservoir's thermal structure and the metabolic processes of aquatic photosynthetic organisms. Therefore, to better estimate the regional carbon budget in a reservoir or lake, future studies should especially consider the combined effects of BCP and thermal structure variations on carbon variations.

Measuring and decomposing natural capital use in Xinjiang from a regional-industry perspective

Accurately portraying the mechanism of the flow of natural resource consumption between regions and its impact on ecology is of crucial value in deepening the understanding of the coordinated relationship between population, resources, environment and development. Consequently, this promotes the sustainable development of the natural economy and society. Based on a regional-industrial perspective, this study used a localized three-dimensional ecological footprint model to measure and decompose natural resources in Xinjiang from 2005 to 2020. In doing so, the study clarified the supply, demand, and flow utilization of natural capital in Xinjiang, the balance of spatial and temporal allocation of resources, the coupling between economic growth and resource consumption, and the coordination between industrial structure and ecological environment. The results showed that (1) Xinjiang's per capita ecological deficit grew from 2.096 to 11.667 in 2005-2020. Moreover, the energy footprint was a decisive part of the ecological deficit throughout the study period. Furthermore, the trend of increased ecological pressure was higher in northern and eastern Xinjiang than in southern Xinjiang. (2) The overall Gini coefficient of Xinjiang's ecological carrying capacity was at the critical value of spatial equilibrium (0.4), with differences between the groups: Northern & Southern Xinjiang > Northern & Eastern Xinjiang > Eastern & Southern Xinjiang. The reasons for this inter-regional economic disparity are related to fiscal expenditure/GDP, level of urbanization, and regional industrial output. Overall, the decoupling relationship between environmental pressures and economic growth was optimistic. (3) From an industrial perspective, the levels of industrial structural efficiency and the industrial ecological harmony index were still relatively low, but the overall trend was on the rise. (4) Resource endowment, economic development, consumption structure, and population had significant driving effects on the ecological footprint, whereas environmental protection, science, and technology could inhibit its growth to a certain extent. This study aimed to provide an in-depth analysis of the current situation and problems of natural resource use in Xinjiang and provide theoretical and practical references for sustainable development in the region.

"Dark under the lamp": ecological equity of urban agglomeration from the perspective of natural capital in China

Although equity is an important aspect of sustainable development, equity research has mainly focused on income and economics while paying insufficient attention to ecological equity. Therefore, aiming to improve our understanding of equity and promote environmental protection, this study introduced natural capital to measure regional ecological equity and analyze its driving factors. Based on ecological footprint (EF) and ecosystem service value (ESV), we constructed evaluation indexes and drew an "ecological Lorentz curve bundle" to analyze ecological equity in the Jing-Jin-Ji urban agglomeration (JUA) from 2009 to 2020. The results showed that economic development in JUA resulted in the severe depletion of natural capital, especially biological and energy resources, and the supply and demand of natural capital was in a low-level equilibrium state. Based on JUA's population base, natural capital utilization in the region had exceeded ecological equity, and the Gini coefficient of EF based on population was close to the international warning value of 0.4. Although economic development in JUA has promoted economic equity, it has also led to environmental inequity. Large cities such as Beijing and Tianjin, as well as industrial cities such as Tangshan and Handan, have had the greatest effects on ecological equity. Moreover, the excessive consumption of natural capital stock and energy-dependent industrial structures threaten ecological equity.

Spatiotemporal evolution of water ecological footprint based on the emergy-spatial autocorrelation method

To quantify and analyze the human demand for water resources and the available supply of water resource systems, this study combined emergy analysis and spatial autocorrelation analysis to establish a quantification and analysis system for water ecological footprint (WEF). First, the emergy theory of ecological economics and WEF were combined to propose an emergy quantification method for WEF and water ecological carrying capacity (WEC). Based on the spatial autocorrelation method, three-dimensional ecological footprint indicators (footprint size and depth) were introduced to analyze the spatial correlation and spatial aggregation of capital flow occupation and capital stock consumption in the water resource system. Using the Yellow River Basin (YRB) as the study area to verify the applicability of the WEF quantification and analysis system based on the emergy-spatial autocorrelation method, the following results were obtained. (1) From 2003 to 2018, the per capita WEF of the YRB generally showed a slow growth trend. (2) Compared to the upper and lower reaches of the YRB, the middle reaches had a higher WEF, and the WEC of the YRB was generally high in the west and low in the east. (3) Utilization of the water resources capital in the basin was generally unsustainable. It is necessary to take measures to promote rational allocation and efficient utilization of water resources for the coordinated development of society, the economy, and the environment in the YRB. (4) The emergy-spatial autocorrelation method is applied to basin/region water sustainability studies for decision makers.

Assessment of Urban Agglomeration Ecological Sustainability and Identification of Influencing Factors: Based on the 3DEF Model and the Random Forest

The evaluation of ecological sustainability is significant for high-quality urban development and scientific management and regulation. Taking the Chengdu urban agglomeration (CUA) as the research object, this paper combined the three-dimensional ecological footprint model (3DEF) and random forest to evaluate the ecological sustainability of the study area and identify the influencing factors. The study results indicate that: (1) From 2000 to 2019, the ecological sustainability of Chengdu urban agglomeration was divided into four types, and the overall ecological sustainability of this region showed a downward trend. The areas with higher ecological sustainability were mainly distributed in the northern part of the urban agglomeration (Mianyang City) and the southern part (Leshan City and Ya'an City), while the cities in the central region (Chengdu City, Meishan City, and Ziyang City) had lower ecological sustainability. (2) The main factors affecting the ecological sustainability of urban agglomerations are industrial wastewater discharge, industrial smoke (powder) dust discharge, and green coverage of built-up areas, followed by urbanization and population size. Through this study, we have two meaningful findings: (a) Our research method in this paper provides a new way to study the factors affecting the ecological sustainability of urban agglomerations. (b) The results of the identification of influencing factors might be the reference for urban environmental infrastructure construction and urban planning.

Evaluating the Resources and Environmental Carrying Capacity in Laos Using a Three-Dimensional Tetrahedron Model

(1) Background: The quantitative evaluation and comprehensive measurement of resources and environmental carrying capacity (RECC) are key links in the study of RECC from classification to synthesis. Laos, as the only landlocked country of Mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA), is an important economic corridor (i.e., China-MSEA Economic Corridor) of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). (2) Methods: Based on the human settlements index (HSI), resource carrying index (RCI), and socio-economic development index (SDI), here, a three-dimensional tetrahedron model for the comprehensive assessment of RECC with equilibrium significance was constructed, including HSI-based suitability classification, RCI-based restrictive classification, and SDI-based adaptability classification. Taking provinces as the basic unit, we quantitatively assessed and comprehensively evaluated RECC in Laos using a three-dimensional tetrahedron model. (3) Results: The human settlement environment in Laos is mainly characterized by the moderate suitable category (85%), while the high suitability area (merely 5%) supports more than 30% of the total population. Laos had over 90% of its area in good condition in resources and environmental carrying status (surplus or balanced state), translating into more than 95% of the population. The social and economic development level is mainly characterized by low-level development (43%), with nearly 30% of the population living in these low-level areas. The comprehensive bearing state of resources and environment is characterized by surplus, and 85% of the population is distributed in the surplus area, which occupies 63% of the land. (4) Conclusions: It is possible to better explore the adaptation strategies and countermeasures for enhancing RECC in Laos and provide a scientific reference for regional sustainable development. We believe that the three-dimensional tetrahedron method can be applied to quantitatively evaluate and comprehensively measure RECC at larger scale, e.g., the BRI regions.

Evaluation and Prediction of Ecological Sustainability in the Upper Reaches of the Yellow River Based on Improved Three-Dimensional Ecological Footprint Model

Ecological footprint is an important method for regional sustainable assessment. Scientific assessment of the ecological sustainability of the upper reaches of the Yellow River is of great significance to the realization of a win-win situation for the ecological environment protection and economic development of the entire Yellow River basin. Based on the improved three-dimensional ecological footprint model, this paper measures and spatially portrays the ecological footprint per capita depth (EF_depth), ecological footprint per capita size (EF_size), and ecological footprint per capita 3D (per capita EF_3D) of the upper Yellow River region from 2011 to 2020. Then, the ecological footprint diversity index (EFDI), integrated land stress index (I_{comprehensive}), ecological stress index (ETI), and ecological coordination coefficient (ECC) are used to evaluate its ecological safety and sustainability. The results of the study indicate that: (1) From 2011 to 2020, the three-dimensional ecological footprint of all provinces and regions in the upper reaches of the Yellow River was in a fluctuating upward trend as a whole, and NMG had the highest growth, from 2.6256 hm²/person to 3.3163 hm²/person, with an average annual growth rate of 2.36%. (2) In the past 10 years, the ETI index of the upper reaches of the Yellow River increased from 2.13 in 2011 to 3.28 in 2020, which is a serious insecurity. The EFDI index fluctuates slightly, but increases year by year. (3) The capital flow occupancy rate of the upper reaches of the Yellow River has been above 86.67%, and fluctuated during the study period, reaching a peak of 88.61% in 2020. (4) In the four periods, the number of land comprehensive pressure states and ecological security pressure states of the provinces and regions in the upper reaches of the Yellow River show a distribution pattern that the northeast region is better than the southwest region. This study is expected to provide scientific reference for land use in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, building the ecological security barrier of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, and promoting sustainable socio-economic development.

Sustainable evaluation of the eco-economic systems in the π-shaped Curve Area of the Yellow River basin of China: a study based on the 3D ecological footprint model

Sustainable evaluation of the eco-economic systems is crucial to resolve the contradiction between environmental protection and economic development and promote healthy urban development. This paper constructed an SEC framework for sustainable development index (SDI) evaluation of the eco-economic systems in the π-shaped Curve Area in the Yellow River basin based on the 3D ecological footprint (EF) model. The study was conducted from three aspects: the capital utilization scale and equity during the ecological supply and demand process, the development efficiency and capacity of the eco-economic systems, and the relations between the systems embodied by the coordination and security evaluation. Also, the SDI and its influence mechanism were studied using the fully arrayed polygon diagram and geographic detector. Findings include the following: EF depth is higher in cities with poor natural resources, while EF size is higher in cities with vast territories and rich resources. The arrangement of EF depth and EF size presents nearly a reverse trend, and the consumption of capital flow and capital stock complements each other. Cities can be classified as heavy utilization type, moderate utilization type, mild utilization type, and low stock appropriation type. From 2005 to 2019, the area's SDI and the three aspects presented evident spatial heterogeneity and formed clusters. The role of government, energy consumption, scientific innovation, industrial structure, urbanization rate, population, economic level, and openness level impact SDI differently. This study proposed a new insight for the sustainability evaluation of eco-economic systems.

Spatio-temporal Differentiation of Coupling Coordination between Ecological Footprint and Ecosystem Service Functions in the Aksu Region, Xinjiang, China

The ecological footprint and ecosystem service functions in the northwest arid region of China have their unique characteristics and are limited by natural resources. The coordination level between the pressure of human activities on the ecosystem and the ecosystem service capacity can be objectively reflected on by exploring the coupling coordination relationship between these two aspects. This work used the ecological footprint and Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs models to quantitatively analyze the spatial and temporal variations of the ecological footprint and ecosystem service functions in the Aksu region in Xinjiang. A coupling coordination degree model and spatial autocorrelation analysis were used to assess the coupling coordination level and spatial agglomeration characteristics of the regional ecological footprint and ecosystem service functions. The results showed that the ecological footprint of the Aksu region has been high in the northeast and low in the southwest, with noticeable spatial heterogeneity, from 2005 to 2018. Carbon (66.17%) and cropland (26.64%) are the main contributing factors to the regional ecological footprint. The biocapacity is dominated by cropland, built-up land, and forest land. The ecological footprint and biocapacity showed an increasing trend, ranging from an ecological surplus to an ecological deficit, with a continued ecological deficit. The level of ecosystem service functions in the Aksu region was low, with significant spatial variability. The high values were concentrated in the northern part of the region and the Tarim and Hotan River Basins. The coupling coordination level of the ecological footprint and ecosystem service functions in the Aksu area was high in the north and low in the south. The aforementioned coupling coordination level was dominated by the spatial pattern of the ecosystem service functions and had noticeable spatial agglomeration characteristics. The coupling coordination degree of the ecological footprint and water supply function showed an upward trend. By contrast, the coupling coordination degree of the ecological footprint with soil conservation and biodiversity maintenance functions showed a downward trend.

Using Net Primary Productivity to Characterize the Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of Ecological Footprint for a Resource-Based City, Panzhihua in China

An ecological footprint is a primary indicator in measuring the sustainability of regional development, especially in resource-based cities. Here, we built an ecological footprint-based framework to assess the sustainability for a resource-based city of Panzhihua, in China. In this framework, a suite of long-term ecological parameters (2000–2020), essentially including Net Primary Productivity (NPP), land cover, as well as social statistical data, was used as the input indices of a provincial hectare ecological footprint model. The model outputs are composed of the ecological footprint (EF), ecological footprint per capita (PEF), ecological capacity (EC), ecological capacity per capita (PEC), ecological deficit/surplus (ED/S), and per capita ecological deficit/surplus (PED/S). Then the sustainable development capability of the city was comprehensively evaluated using a suite of ecological indices, including the ecological pressure index (EPI), ecological footprint per ten thousand GDP (EFG), ecological sustainability index (ESI), and ecological coordination index (ECI). The study reveals that, from 2000–2020, (1) PEC and PED/S presented an increasing trend (0.2401 hm2/person and 2.1421 hm2/person, respectively), while PEF decreased by 1.9 hm2/person. In the case of the ecological deficit, fossil energy land and forest were the dominant land types in controlling the ecological footprint and ecological capacity, (2) EPI and EFG decreased by 6.6381 hm2/person and 2.2462 hm2/person, respectively, and ESI and ECI increased by 0.3436 hm2/person and 0.2897 hm2/person, respectively. These indices also reflect that the utilization rate of natural resources in Panzhihua City has been improved, with enhanced sustainability, as well as a decline in ecological pressure. This ecological footprint-based framework could work as a template for evaluating the sustainability of resource-based cities from positive and negative ecological footprint indices.

Study on sustainable developments in Guangdong Province from 2013 to 2018 based on an improved ecological footprint model

Aiming at the ecological footprint model, the traditional trade adjustment method only considered the international trade process at the urban scale, ignoring the trade footprint generated by domestic trade and indirect trade in various products. This paper adopts the urban-scale ecological footprint model based on the macro-trade adjustment method to calculate the trade adjustment coefficient of biological products and the energy trade adjustment coefficient respectively to correct the trade footprint. The results showed that the per capita ecological deficit showed a straight upward trend, from 0.07351 hm² in 2013 to 0.15472 hm² in 2018. From 2013 to 2018, the per capita ecological footprint of Guangdong Province was greater than the per capita ecological carrying capacity, and the ecological economic system of Guangdong Province was in an unsustainable state. According to the trade ecological footprint, Guangdong Province was a completely foreign resource and service exporting city, which was consistent with Guangdong Province's own economic development direction; the analysis results of the ecological product trade footprint were more consistent with the current city positioning of biological resource products of each city, and the energy indirect trade footprint. The improved ecological footprint model could more accurately assess the true status of ecological vitality above the urban scale.

Study on temporal and spatial differentiation of biocapacity in Shenyang from a multi-scale perspective

Biocapacity of a region exhibits spatial differences owing to the limitations of regional scale and natural conditions. Based on the multi-scale perspective, we comprehensively studied and analyzed the temporal and spatial differences of the biocapacity of a region in an attempt to establish the groundwork for optimizing urban development and its utilization framework. By adopting the ecological footprint model along with multi-scale difference evaluation method, the municipal and county scales are incorporated into a unified analysis framework in this paper, thereby facilitating the exploration of the temporal and spatial differences in the biocapacity of Shenyang-a city in China-from 2005 to 2019. The results demonstrated that: 1) At the municipal scale, the biocapacity per capita fluctuated between 1.35 hm2/person and 2.22 hm2/person. It revealed an "up-down-up" trend, which appeared consistent with the Kuznets cycle; at the county scale, the biocapacity depicted spatial differences, while those of downtown and surrounding districts/counties developed a two-level ascending hierarchical structure. 2) The time series of footprint size and depth first ascended and then declined, and can be classified into four types: closed type, inverted U-type, S-type, and M-type. Among them, S-type and M-type have the phenomenon of over-utilizing the stock capital. 3) For a long time, the regional difference of biocapacity has mostly dwelt on two scales with an evident scale effect, and the biocapacity of Liaozhong District was the worst.

Assessment of the Sustainable Utilization Level of Water Resources in the Wuhan Metropolitan Area Based on a Three-Dimensional Water Ecological Footprint Model

The shortage and overexploitation of water resources restrict the sustainable development of metropolitan areas. To evaluate the sustainable utilization level of water resources, we identified the occupancy of natural capital stock and the consumption of natural capital flow by water resources consumption and analyzed the factors influencing water resources consumption in metropolitan area development. We took the Wuhan Metropolitan Area in China from 2010 to 2019 as the research object and introduced footprint depth and size, the water ecological footprint (WEF) model was expanded into the three-dimensional WEF model. Based on this model, an evaluation system for the sustainable utilization level of water resources was constructed with five indices—water ecological deficit, water ecological surplus, water ecological pressure, WEF depth, and WEF size. Finally, the driving factors of WEF change were analyzed using the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index. The evaluation of the sustainable utilization level of water resources showed that the Wuhan Metropolitan Area as a whole experienced water ecological surplus from 2010 to 2019, but there were different degrees of water ecological deficit in its inner urban areas, and the most serious cumulative deficit was 5.02 ha/cap in Ezhou. In 2011 and 2019, the sustainable utilization level of water resources in the metropolitan area reached a relatively unsustainable state. Xianning was the urban area with the most sustainable utilization level of water resources. During the study period, the metropolitan area did not occupy the natural capital stock of water resources, and the natural capital flow of water resources in the inner urban areas could meet the demand of the current consumption of the region in 2010 and 2016. The analysis of the driving factors of WEF change showed that economic development effect and population pressure effect had a positive driving effect on WEF change, while WEF intensity effect and water resources carrying capacity effect had the opposite effect. Finally, according to the research results, it can be seen that improving the efficiency of water resources utilization, protecting the natural capital stock of water resources, realizing differentiated regional development through the market economy and developing water policy can be helpful to improve the level of sustainable water resources utilization.

Can the human development level in middle-income regions meet the challenges of natural capital change from the perspective of decoupling? Evidence from Shaanxi Province

Human activities in middle-income regions (MIRs) accelerate the appropriation of natural capital (NC) through production and living activities. The environmental changes caused by these activities in turn have an impact on human development and challenge the human adaptability of MIRs. Therefore, it is very important to realize the decoupling of NC and human development. This study takes China's Shaanxi Province as a case and establishes a research framework that decouples the human development index (HDI) from the perspective of NC stock and flow. Shaanxi is evaluated based on an analysis of the changing HDI and measuring changes in NC indicators from 2005 to 2018. The state of decoupling between the HDI and NC utilization levels is also discussed. The results show that the average annual growth of the HDI and per capita ecological footprint is 1.54% and 3.22%, respectively. The rate of consumption of the NC stock is greater than the rate of NC flow consumption. The HDI and the three-dimensional ecological footprint have not achieved real decoupling, and the changes in the two are the same as those in the left half of the inverted U-shaped environmental Kuznets curve. However, the inflection point has not been reached. This shows that the NC and HDI in Shaanxi have not achieved decoupling, and rapid NC changes hinder the ability to improve human well-being. This discovery helps MIRs focus on the role of restoration ecosystems in supporting regional human development and respond to the challenge of insufficient human adaptability due to excessive consumption of NC.

Decoupling and Decomposition Analysis of Land Natural Capital Utilization and Economic Growth: A Case Study in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China

In order to reduce the depletion of land natural capital and develop economy simultaneously, it is necessary to study how to achieve the strong decoupling relationship between them. However, so far such studies have been relatively limited. Thus, taking the case of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China, this paper firstly analyzes the state of land natural capital utilization in 1999–2017 by using improved ecological footprint. Then, decoupling state is quantified by Tapio decoupling model. Last, major driving factors on the decoupling relationship are explored with combination of LMDI decomposition and Kaya identity equation. Results showed that: (1) Both natural capital flows and stock depletion of cultivated land decrease obviously during the transition to corn-based intensive ecological agriculture. Grassland and water are the most unsustainable development sectors among all land types with their stock depletion intensified. Forest land and construction land could basically meet the consumer demand, but the flow occupancy of construction land is the fastest-growing segment. (2) Decoupling relationship is in an alternating state between weak decoupling and strong decoupling in 1999–2017. Wherein, the cultivated land and forest land showed a preferred decoupling state, followed by grassland, while the water and construction land showed the unfavorable expansive negative decoupling and weak decoupling. (3) Decomposition results show that intensity effect is the major factor that promotes the decoupling while economic effect inhibits the decoupling, but this negative impact is weakening in the process of industrial transformation. The other three factors affect less on the decoupling. This study has a certain reference value to construct an ecological civilization in eco-fragile regions and formulate relevant policies on the increase of land natural capital efficiency.

Assessing Ecological Carrying Capacity in the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area Based on a Three-Dimensional Ecological Footprint Model

As one of the most developed and competitive metropolitan areas in the world, the contradiction between resource depletion and sustainable development in the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GHMGBA) has become a crucial issue nowadays. This paper analyzed the natural capital utilization patterns in GHMGBA during 2009–2016 based on a three-dimensional ecological footprint model. Ecological carrying capacity intensity (ECintensity) was calculated to optimize the accounting of ecological carrying capacity (EC). Ecological footprint depth (EFdepth) and ECintensity were quantitatively investigated and influencing factors were further explored based on a partial least squares (PLS) model. Results showed that GHMGBA had been operating in a deficit state due to the shortage of natural capital flow and accumulated stock depletion. The highest EFdepth occurred in Macao (17.11~26.21) and Zhongshan registering the lowest (2.42~3.58). Cropland, fossil energy and construction land constituted the most to total ecological deficit, while woodland was continuously in a slight surplus. Natural capital utilization patterns of 11 cities were divided into four categories through hierarchical clustering analysis. Driving factors of EFdepth, ECintensity and three-dimensional ecological deficit (ED3D) were mainly students in primary and secondary education, disposable income, consumption expenditure, R&D personnel and freight volume. Our findings could provide guidance for decision-makers to develop resource utilization portfolios in GHMGBA.

An ecological footprint approach for cropland use sustainability based on multi-objective optimization modelling

Croplands are heterogeneous in productivity and their sustainable use holds a prominent place in supporting a virtual society-economy-ecology-environment circle. This study developed a model for the evaluation of cropland use sustainability by integrating the revised ecological footprint model with multi-objective optimization. The model enabled to gain insights into changes of the supply-demand balance of cropland use ecologically from a planning perspective, and also enables policy makers to determine the optimal patterns of cropland use in order to reconcile contradictions between multiple dimensions in agroecosystems, such as resource utilization, economy, society, and environment. The model was demonstrated by solving a real-world problem of cropland use management in Heilongjiang Province, northeast China. Results of demonstration were found to be satisfactory for generating sustainable cropland use patterns in promoting the equilibrium of water use efficiency, net economic benefit, land resource allocation equity, and greenhouse gas emissions. Then, whether various cropland use patterns were ecologically safe based on crop ecological footprint and crop ecological carrying capacity were determined. The status and scenario-based trend of cropland use sustainability provided alternatives for policy makers to allocate cropland efficiently and sustainably. The model is applicable for similar planting-centered regions with limited land and water resources.

Exploring the dynamic, forecast and decoupling effect of land natural capital utilization in the hinterland of the Three Gorges Reservoir area, China

Natural capital utilization in ecologically sensitive areas is an important subject for ecologically sustainable quantification. Research on the natural capital flow and stock is helpful to analyze the utilization of natural capital and promote its sustainable development. Thus, we attempted to combine the three-dimensional ecological footprint model with the decoupling model and GM(1,1) model to analyze the current and future state of land natural capital utilization, and then analyze the status of decoupling between economic development and the sustainable use of the land natural capital. The results showed that: (1) Overall, the land footprint and land capacity in the hinterland of the Three Gorges Reservoir area increased. The occupation of the land natural capital flow increased, and the footprint depth first increased and then decreased. (2) The utilization ratio of capital stock to the flows of cultivated land increased, and the space for sustainable utilization of natural capital was larger. The gray prediction showed that the ratio of capital stock to the flows in all the districts and counties of the study area will increase from 2022. (3) A decoupling relationship existed between the utilization ratio of the stock flow and Gross Domestic Product as a whole, indicating that the pressure of economic development on the sustainable utilization of natural capital has always existed. This study has a certain reference value to construct an ecological civilization in the hinterland of the Three Gorges Reservoir and formulate relevant policies on the increase of rural land natural capital.

Natural Capital Evolution and Driving Forces in Energy-Rich and Ecologically Fragile Regions: A Case Study of Ningxia Province, China

Ningxia Province is rich in energy but fragile in ecology. How to coordinate sustainable utilization of natural capital and the fragile ecological environment is a significant guarantee for social-economic development. This study uses the improved three-dimensional ecological footprint to characterize the utilization status of natural capital flows and stocks in Ningxia Province from 2004 to 2017. Additionally, the driving factors behind changes in the natural capital stock are revealed by the partial least squares method (PLS). The results are as follows: (1) From 2004 to 2017, ecological footprint increased rapidly in Ningxia Province at an annual rate of 4.52%, resulting in a increase of the ecological deficit from 1.64 to 3.85 gha/cap at an annual rate of 6.8%, among which, Yinchuan city and Shizuishan city had the largest ecological deficit, while Guyuan city basically maintained ecological surplus. The fossil energy land and cropland were the main components of ecological footprint. (2) The consumption of capital stock in Ningxia Province continued to grow at an annual rate of 3.12%, from a value of 2.28 times overusing the existing area in 2004, increasing to 3.41 times in 2017. While the EF size increased slightly with an annual rate of 1.95%. The capital stock consumption was concentrated in Yinchuan and Shizuishan, and the capital flow consumption was concentrated in Wuzhong, Guyuan, and Zhongwei. (3) The capital flows of forest land and built-up land basically meet consumption demand, while the capital stock occupation of grassland, water and fossil energy land was serious. By 2017, the capital flow of cropland could basically satisfy people’s consumption demand. (4) The urbanization rate, GDP, the secondary industry output value and per capita consumption expenditure of urban residents were the main influence factors on the natural capital stock consumption. These findings not only are of real significance in promoting the coordinated development between economy and natural capital utilization in Ningxia Province but also have policy implications in improving the utilization efficiency of natural capital in energy-rich ecologically fragile regions.

Assessing the Ecological Carrying Capacity Based on Revised Three-Dimensional Ecological Footprint Model in Inner Mongolia, China

Under the concept of green development, accurately mapping ecological carrying capacity to effectively evaluate regional sustainability has already become an important issue in China. This study introduced ecological carrying capacity intensity (ECintensity) based on the revised three-dimensional ecological footprint (3DEF) model to describe the temporal–spatial patterns of three-dimensional ecological carrying capacity (EC3D) in Inner Mongolia in 2010–2016 and to explore factors affecting socioeconomic sustainable development. The results showed that ecological footprint size (EFsize) differed between cities/leagues but changed little during the study period. Ecological footprint depth (EFdepth) far exceeded the original value of 1.00. Ecological carrying capacity (EC) varied in cities/leagues, while ECintensity increased slowly with stronger potential for regional development. Three-dimensional ecological deficits (ED3D) of cities/leagues were divided into five categories: Hohhot, Hulunbuir and Banyannur were in larger ecological surplus; Hinggan was in slight surplus; Baotou, Chifeng, Tongliao, Ulanqab, Xilin Gol and Erdos were in slight deficit; Wuhai was in stronger deficit; and Alxa was in severely intense deficit. Woodland of cities/leagues was continuously in slight ecological surplus, while cropland and grassland had crucial impacts on deficit. There was a significant positive linear correlation between gross domestic product (GDP) and footprint, while a negative correlation was seen with deficit. These results would help coordinate resource utilization and industrial structure adjustment in Inner Mongolia.

Sustainability Assessment of Natural Capital Based on the 3D Ecological Footprint Model: A Case Study of the Shennongjia National Park Pilot

The sustainability assessment of natural capital (SANC) is one of the key elements in the field of national park protection. Assessing the impact of socioeconomic development on the Shennongjia National Park Pilot (SNPP), a typical national park in China, would be extremely conducive to the sustainable management of its natural capital. To this end, a natural capital account system encompassing transportation, accommodation, food, and waste for both locals and tourists was developed. Throughout the period from 2007 to 2016, a SANC was conducted in SNPP based on the 3D ecological footprint (EF3D) model to measure stock consumption as well as flow occupancy. The main conclusions were as follows: First, the ecological footprint (EF) size of the SNPP increased yearly from 2007 to 2014, although it decreased in 2015, when the government started preparing for the SNPP. Second, rapid tourism-related developments brought about an increase in the EF of built-up land, and the increasing medicinal planting also enlarged the EF of arable land. Third, the cumulative EF of tourism was 2.82 times that of locals over the past decade. This gap has been expanding. Overall, the results show relatively steady sustainability in terms of natural capital in the SNPP. More precisely, the preceding stock consumption did not severely constrain the function of the current regeneration of flow capital, whereas tourism and planting have become potential threats to the sustainability of the natural capital.

Evaluation of ecological sustainability based on a revised three-dimensional ecological footprint model in Shandong Province, China

This study used the revised three-dimensional ecological footprint model (3DEF), to calculate the status of sustainable ecological development in Shandong Province in 2010-2015, analyze dynamic changes in sustainability characteristics, and explore factors affecting sustainable development. The results showed the following (Wackernagel & Rees, 1996). Seventeen prefecture-level cities featured varying degrees of ecological deficits, and ecological development was unsustainable in all cities (Wackernagel et al., 2004). Footprint sizes differed between the cities, but changed little over time. Cropland was the main contributor to footprint size, as it was the main capital flow utilization component (Daly, 1994). For all cities, footprint depth exceeded the original length of 1; lack of capital flow caused capital stock depletion. There was a significant positive linear correlation between changes in energy footprint and footprint depth (Zhou et al., 2015). The 17 prefecture-level cities were divided into four natural capital utilization categories using clustering: zone I (2 cities), in which capital stock consumption greatly exceeded capital flow occupancy, contain the most severe ecological stress; zone II (9 cities), wherein the level of stock capital consumption was significantly higher than capital flow consumption, the regional development pressure was greater, and the ecological sustainability was lower; zone III (4 cities), which featured mild natural capital utilization and a relatively high capacity for sustainable development; zone IV(2 cities), which featured lagging stock capital utilization, relatively, and the highest capacity for sustainable development. These results would help coordinate resource utilization and economic development in Shandong Province.

Temporal-Spatial Evolution of the Urban Ecological Footprint Based on Net Primary Productivity: A Case Study of Xuzhou Central Area, China

The urbanization process all over the world has caused serious ecological and environmental problems which have recently become a focus for study. Ecological footprint analysis, which is widely used to assess the sustainability of regional development, can quantitatively measure the human occupation of natural capital. In this study, the ecological footprint based on net primary production (EF-NPP) and MODIS data were used to measure the ecological footprint in Xuzhou central area from 2005 to 2014. The results showed that from 2005 to 2014, the per capita ecological footprint increased from 1.06 to 1.17 hm2/person; the per capita ecological capacity decreased from 0.10 to 0.09 hm2/person; the per capita ecological deficit increased from −0.96 to −1.09 hm2/person; and the ecological pressure index increased from 6.87 to 11.97. The composition of the ecological footprint showed that grassland contributed most to the ecological footprint and deficit, and cultivated land contributed most to the ecological capacity. The spatial distribution of the ecological footprint changed significantly, especially in the expansion of the area of lower value. The ecological capacity and deficit changed little. The ecological situation in Xuzhou central area was unbalanced. Based on this study, Xuzhou city was recommended to control the increase of the ecological footprint, improve the ecological capacity and balance the ecological pattern for sustainable development.

Sustainability Evaluation Based on a Three-Dimensional Ecological Footprint Model: A Case Study in Hunan, China

Under the concept of green development, the promotion of ecological sustainable development capability has become an important policy objective of the Chinese government. Based on the three-dimensional ecological footprint model, this paper analyzes the ecological footprint, ecological carrying capacity, and ecological sustainable development capacity of Hunan province from 2005 to 2015. The results show that the total ecological footprint of Hunan increases from 2005 to 2015, in which the forest land ecological footprint accounts for the largest proportion. The ecological footprint depth is always greater than 1, indicating that Hunan has been in a state of ecological deficit; in the context of the distribution, the ecological pressure of Hunan shows a “high in surround while low in central” pattern. The results about the ecological footprint diversity index show that although the ecosystem of Hunan is stability, the level of eco-economic development ability is low. The ecological efficiency represented by GDP per unit of ecological footprint shows that Hunan’s ecological efficiency increases with an average rate of 13.12% annually during 2005–2015 because of the improvement of the factor substitution.

Accounting for "land-grabbing" from a biocapacity viewpoint

The comparison of the Ecological Footprint and its counterpart (i.e. biocapacity) allow for a classification of the world's countries as ecological creditors (Ecological Footprint lower than biocapacity) or debtors (Ecological Footprint higher than biocapacity). This classification is a national scale assessment on an annual time scale that provides a view of the ecological assets appropriated by the local population versus the natural ecological endowment of a country. We show that GDP per capita over a certain threshold is related with the worsening of the footprint balance in countries classified as ecological debtors. On the other hand, this correlation is lost when ecological creditor nations are considered. There is evidence that governments and investors from high GDP countries are playing a crucial role in impacting the environment at the global scale which is significantly affecting the geography of sustainability and preventing equal opportunities for development. In particular, international market dynamics and the concentration of economic power facilitate the transfer of biocapacity related to “land grabbing”, i.e. large scale acquisition of agricultural land. This transfer mainly occurs from low to high GDP countries, regardless of the actual need of foreign biocapacity, as expressed by the national footprint balance. A first estimation of the amount of biocapacity involved in this phenomenon is provided in this paper in order to better understand its implications on global sustainability and national and international land use policy.