Bone alterations in hepatitis C virus infected patients

Association between Chronic Hepatitis B/C and Incidence of Osteoporosis and Bone Fractures: Results from a Retrospective Cohort Study

Background: Osteoporosis and bone fractures affect health and quality of life. Since bone disease is multifactorial, identifying risk factors is key in prevention. There are multiple reports on how viral hepatitis, especially chronic hepatitis B (CHB) and chronic hepatitis C (CHC), are affecting bone disease, but results vary. Here, we analyzed the potential association between CHB/CHC and osteoporosis or bone fractures in a large outpatient cohort in Germany. Methods: We included 3136 outpatients with CHB and 15,608 matched non-hepatitis individuals as well as 2867 outpatients with CHC and 14,335 matched non-hepatitis individuals from the Disease Analyzer Database between 2005 and 2022. The main outcome was the 5-year cumulative incidence of osteoporosis and bone fractures as a function of either CHB or CHC. Results: Within 5 years of the index date, 2.9% vs. 1.6% of patients with and without CHB were diagnosed with osteoporosis (p = 0.001) and 1.0% vs. 0.4% were diagnosed with bone fractures (p < 0.001). Moreover, 3.3% of CHC patients and 2.2% of individuals without hepatitis C were diagnosed with osteoporosis (p = 0.002). In Cox regression analyses, CHB was significantly associated with an increased risk for osteoporosis (HR: 1.76) and fractures (HR:2.43) and CHC with osteoporosis (HR: 1.54). For both CHB and CHC, the association with osteoporosis was restricted to the female subgroup. Conclusions: CHB and CHC are associated with osteoporosis in women. CHB in male patients is associated with a higher risk of fractures. More research is needed to understand the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms.

Risk of injuries before and after a diagnosis of cirrhosis: A population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Cirrhosis is often asymptomatic prior to decompensation. Still, cognitive impairment and sarcopenia may be present before decompensation, possibly increasing the risk of injuries. We estimated the risk of injuries during the period shortly before and after cirrhosis diagnosis.

METHODS

All patients (N=59,329) with a diagnosis of cirrhosis from 1997 to 2019 were identified from the Swedish National Patient Register. We used a self-controlled case series design to compare the incidence rates (IR) of injuries during a "diagnostic period" (within 3 months before or after the cirrhosis diagnosis date) to a self-controlled "prediagnostic period" (the same 6 calendar months 3 years before diagnosis), using conditional Poisson regression. Injuries were ascertained from the National Patient Register.

RESULTS

We identified 23,733 (40.0%) patients with compensated and 35,595 (60.0%) with decompensated cirrhosis. There were 975 injuries (IR 2.8/1000 person-months) during the prediagnostic period, and 3610 injuries (IR 11.6/1000 person-months) identified during the diagnostic period. The IR ratio was 8.1 (95% CI 7.5-8.7) comparing the diagnostic period with the prediagnostic period. For patients with compensated cirrhosis, the risk increment of injuries was highest just before the diagnosis of cirrhosis, whereas the risk increase was highest shortly after the diagnosis for those with decompensation.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of injuries increases shortly before and after the diagnosis of cirrhosis. These findings indicate that cirrhosis is frequently diagnosed in conjunction with an injury, and highlight the need for injury prevention after cirrhosis diagnosis, especially in patients with decompensation.

Bone mineral density and trabecular bone score in treatment-naïve patients with non-cirrhotic hepatitis C virus infection

We studied 112 treatment-naïve chronic HCV patients without cirrhosis, and we found that, especially HCV+ postmenopausal women, they had lower TBS and BMD values than healthy controls. This suggests that HCV infection is an independent risk factor for osteoporosis, and therefore, screening for osteoporosis in postmenopausal HCV+ women should be considered.

PURPOSE

To know whether patients in earlier stages of chronic HCV infection are at increased risk of developing low bone mass and bone microarchitectural changes and whether there is an association between bone metabolism and the severity of the liver disease.

METHODS

We studied 112 treatment-naïve chronic HCV outpatients and 233 healthy age- and sex-matched controls. Bone mineral density (BMD) and trabecular bone score (TBS) were assessed by DXA. Serum 25(OH)D, PTH, P1NP, and CTX were determined by electrochemiluminescence.

RESULTS

TBS values were significantly lower in HCV patients than in controls, both considering the population as a whole (1.337 ± 0.119 vs. 1.377 ± 0.122; p < 0.005) and after stratifying by sex (1.347 ± 0.12 vs. 1.381 ± 0.13 in men and 1.314 ± 0.10 vs. 1.369 ± 0.11 in women). The difference remained significant (p < 0.0001 in all cases) after adjusting for confounders. BMD was also lower in HCV patients (lumbar spine, 0.935 ± 0.151 vs. 0.991 ± 0.143 g/cm², p 0.001; femoral neck, 0.764 ± 0.123 vs. 0.818 ± 0.123 g/cm², p 0.0001; total hip, 0.926 ± 0.148 vs. 0.963 ± 0.132 g/cm², p 0.02), although, after adjustment, differences kept a clear trend towards statistical significance in women at the lumbar spine and femoral neck. However, in men and at the total hip in women, differences were no longer significant. We find no relationship between these parameters and the severity of the disease. No significant difference was observed in PTH and 25OHD status after adjustment. Finally, serum P1NP, but not CTX, was higher in HCV patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that HCV infection is an independent risk factor for osteoporosis, especially among postmenopausal women. Therefore, the appropriateness of screening for osteoporosis in postmenopausal HCV-positive women should be considered.

The association between hepatitis and osteoporosis: a nested case-control study using a national sample cohort

The prevalence of hepatitis B was higher in osteoporosis patients than the control group, especially in females. However, the prevalence of hepatitis C was not different. The matching for various factors improved to have same conditions between osteoporosis patients and the control group.

PURPOSE

Although chronic liver disease, including hepatitis B and hepatitis C, has been associated with osteoporosis in previous studies, the evidence was insufficient, and some findings were inconsistent. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between hepatitis B or hepatitis C and osteoporosis.

METHODS

We used the Korean National Health Insurance Service-National Sample Cohort with ≥ 50-year-old participants from 2002 to 2013. Age was determined at osteoporosis diagnosis. We extracted 68,492 osteoporosis patients (ICD-10 codes E7001-E7004, HC341-HC345) with a 68,492-member control group at a ratio of 1:1 by age, sex, income, region of residence, hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia. We analyzed previous histories of hepatitis B (ICD-10 codes B18.0-B18.1) and hepatitis C (ICD-10 code B18.2) in the osteoporosis patients and control groups. The logistic regression with the crude and adjusted model was analyzed. Additionally, subgroup analyses divided by age and sex were performed.

RESULTS

The adjusted odds ratios for hepatitis B and hepatitis C were 1.19 (95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.11-1.28, P < 0.001) and 1.04 (95% CI = 0.90-1.19, P > 0.05), respectively, in osteoporosis patients. Subgroup analyses showed that the risk of hepatitis B was higher in osteoporosis patients in female groups but not in male groups.

CONCLUSION

Hepatitis B virus infection might be a risk factor for osteoporosis.

Pegylated interferon α/ribavirin therapy enhances bone mineral density in children with chronic genotype 4 HCV infection

BACKGROUND

The impact of chronic hepatitis C (CHC) on bone mineral density (BMD) has been well studied in adults with a relative paucity of data in children, especially concerning effect of treatment with pegylated interferon (PEG-IFN) plus ribavirin (RV). In the current work, we assessed prospectively changes in BMD in children with CHC before, during, and after treatment.

METHODS

Forty-six consecutive children with noncirrhotic genotype 4 CHC were subjected to dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry at baseline, 24 weeks, 48 weeks of therapy and 24 weeks after treatment. BMD, bone mineral content (BMC), and Z score of lumbar spine (L2-L4) were reported. Tanner pubertal stage, viral load, liver function tests, serum calcium, phosphorus, alkaline phosphatase, parathyroid hormone, and liver histopathology were assessed in all included children.

RESULTS

Thirty (65.2%) patients had normal BMD, 10 (21.7%) were at risk for low BMD, and 6 (13.1%) had low BMD for chronological age. Patients with low BMD were significantly older (P=0.001), with higher frequency of delayed puberty than other groups (P=0.002). Baseline densitometric parameters (BMD & BMC) were significantly positively correlated with patients' age, weight, height, body mass index and hemoglobin level; while they were insignificantly correlated with basal viral load, histopathology activity index and fibrosis score. Densitometric parameters improved significantly on PEG-IFN plus RV treatment, this improvement was found to be sustainable 24 weeks after therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Low BMD is detectable in a proportion of CHC children. Antiviral therapy leads to a sustainable increase in BMD.

Bone health in HIV and hepatitis B or C infections

Chronic infections with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) add to age-dependent bone loss and may contribute to lower bone strength in the elderly. In this review, we report recent highlights on the epidemiology of bone fragility in chronic viral infections with HIV, HCV and HBV, its physiopathology and discuss the interference of antiviral therapies with bone metabolism. Chronic infections influence bone through the interactions between risk factors for bone fragility and falls (which are highly prevalent in infected patients), virus activity and antiviral drugs. HIV-infected patients are at increased risk of fracture and the risk is higher in cases of co-infection with HIV and untreated chronic viral hepatitis. In HIV patients, the majority of bone loss occurs during virus activity and at initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, long-term elderly HIV-infected patients on successful ART display bone microstructure alterations only partially captured by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Bone loss is associated with an increase of bone resorption, reflecting the upregulation of the receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) pathways via a crosstalk between virus activity, inflammation and the immune system. The use of some antiviral drugs, such as tenofovir (controlling both HBV and HIV infections) or protease inhibitors, may be associated with higher bone toxicity. The reduction of tenofovir plasma concentrations with the implementation of tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) attenuates bone mineral density (BMD) loss but it remains unknown whether it will contribute to reducing fracture risk in long-term HIV-treated patients. Moreover, to what extent the new direct-acting agents for treatment of HCV, including nucleotide inhibitors and protease inhibitors, may affect bone health similarly as ART in HIV should be investigated.

Relation Between Hepatitis C Virus Exposure and Risk of Osteoporosis: A Nationwide Population-Based Study

The effect of hepatitis C virus (HCV) exposure on bone mineral density without advanced liver disease remains debated. Thus, we assessed the relation between HCV exposure and the risk of osteoporosis.From 2000 to 2011, patients aged >20 years with HCV exposure were identified from the Longitudinal Health Insurance Database 2000. Of the 51,535 sampled patients, 41,228 and 10,307 patients were categorized as the comparison and the HCV exposure cohorts, respectively.The overall incidence of osteoporosis in the HCV exposure cohort was higher than in the comparison cohort (8.27 vs 6.19 per 1000 person-years; crude hazard ratio = 1.33, 95% confidence interval = 1.20-1.47). The incidence of osteoporosis, higher in women than in men, increased with age and comorbidity of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and heart failure. The risk of developing osteoporosis was significantly higher in the HCV exposure cohort than in the comparison cohort after adjusting for age, sex, diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, heart failure, stroke, and cirrhosis. However, the risk of osteoporosis contributed by HCV decreased with age and the presence of comorbidity. Furthermore, the risk of osteoporotic fracture did not differ significantly between patients exposed to HCV and the comparison cohorts.HCV increases the risk of osteoporosis, but no detrimental effect on osteoporotic fracture was observed in this study. Furthermore, HCV may be less influential than other risk factors, such as hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and heart failure, in contributing to the development of osteoporosis.

Management of endocrine disease: Secondary osteoporosis: pathophysiology and management

Osteoporosis is a skeletal disorder characterized by decreased mass and compromised bone strength predisposing to an increased risk of fractures. Although idiopathic osteoporosis is the most common form of osteoporosis, secondary factors may contribute to the bone loss and increased fracture risk in patients presenting with fragility fractures or osteoporosis. Several medical conditions and medications significantly increase the risk for bone loss and skeletal fragility. This review focuses on some of the common causes of osteoporosis, addressing the underlying mechanisms, diagnostic approach and treatment of low bone mass in the presence of these conditions.

Bone alterations associated with HIV

HIV infection and initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) have been consistently associated with decreased bone mineral density (BMD), with growing evidence linking HIV to an increased risk of fracture. This is especially concerning with the expanding number of older persons living with HIV. Interestingly, recent data suggest that HIV-infected children and youth fail to achieve peak BMD, possibly increasing their lifetime risk of fracture. Elucidating the causes of the bone changes in HIV-positive persons is challenging because of the multifactorial nature of bone disease in HIV, including contribution of the virus, immunosuppression, ART toxicity, and traditional osteoporosis risk factors, such as age, lower weight, tobacco, and alcohol use. Thus, practitioners must recognize the risk of low BMD and fractures and appropriately screen patients for osteoporosis if risk factors exist. If fractures do occur or elevated fracture risk is detected through screening, treatment with bisphosphonate medications appears safe and effective in the HIV+population.

Osteoporosis and fractures in HIV/hepatitis C virus coinfection: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

There is growing evidence that fracture risk is increased in individuals with HIV and/or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. We systematically reviewed the literature to determine whether prevalence of osteoporosis and incidence of fracture is increased in HIV/HCV-coinfected individuals.

DESIGN

A systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

A search was performed of Medline, Scopus and the Cochrane Library databases, as well as of abstracts from annual retroviral, liver and bone meetings (up to 2013) for studies with bone mineral density (BMD) or bone fracture data for HIV/ HCV-coinfected individuals. Osteoporosis odds ratios (ORs) and fracture incidence rate ratios (IRRs) were estimated from studies with data on HIV-monoinfected or HIV/HCV uninfected comparison groups.

RESULTS

Of 15 included studies, nine reported BMD data and six reported fracture data. For HIV/HCV-coinfected, the estimated osteoporosis prevalence was 22% [95% confidence interval (95% CI) 12–31] and the crude OR for osteoporosis compared with HIV-monoinfected was 1.63 (95% CI 1.27-2.11). The pooled IRR of overall fracture risk for HIV/HCV-coinfected individuals was 1.77 (95% CI 1.44-2.18) compared with HIV-monoinfected and 2.95 (95% CI 2.17-4.01) compared with uninfected individuals. In addition to HIV/HCV-coinfection, older age, lower BMI, smoking, alcohol and substance use were significant predictors of osteoporosis and fractures across studies.

CONCLUSION

HIV/HCV coinfection is associated with a greater risk of osteoporosis and fracture than HIV monoinfection; fracture risk is even greater than uninfected controls. These data suggest that HIV/HCV-coinfected individuals should be targeted for fracture prevention through risk factor modification at all ages and DXA screening at age 50.

Areal bone mineral density in pediatric patients with chronic hepatitis B or chronic hepatitis C

Decreased bone mineral density (BMD) is a known complication of chronic liver disease in adults. Data on bone mass, an important factor for the development of osteoporosis in adult life, in young patients with chronic hepatitis B (HBV) and C virus (HCV) infections are scarce. We measured BMD at the lumbar spine and whole skeleton by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in 11 HBV- and 21 HCV-vertically infected untreated youths (3.9-21.1 years). BMD measurements were compared to those of 202 healthy subjects (3.0-21.9 years). The median BMD Z-score of the lumbar spine of HBV-infected patients was -0.3, ranging from -1.6 to 0.6, while the median whole skeleton BMD Z-score was 0.1 (-0.8 to 0.6). HBV-infected patients showed a median Z-score of the lumbar spine of 0.6 (-1.6 to 1.9), and a median whole skeleton BMD Z-score of 0.6, ranging from -1.5 to 1.4. Multivariate analyses have been performed to correct for differences in sex, age, and anthropometric measurements. Lumbar spine BMD values of HBV and HCV-infected patients were not significantly different from those of controls. Similarly, no differences were found between groups in total body BMD measurements. Our data suggest that, unlikely adult patients, untreated young patients with chronic HBV and HCV infection may not have impaired bone mass measurements.

Fracture risk in hepatitis C virus infected persons: results from the DANVIR cohort study

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The association between Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infection and fracture risk is not well characterized. We compared fracture risk between HCV-seropositive (HCV-exposed) patients and the general population and between patients with cleared and chronic HCV-infection.

METHODS

Outcome measures were time to first fracture at any site, time to first low-energy and first non-low-energy (other) fracture in 12,013 HCV-exposed patients from the DANVIR cohort compared with a general population control cohort (n=60,065) matched by sex and age. Within DANVIR, 4500 patients with chronic HCV-infection and 2656 patients with cleared HCV-infection were studied.

RESULTS

Compared with population controls, HCV-exposed patients had increased overall risk of fracture [adjusted incidence rate ratio (aIRR) 2.15, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 2.03-2.28], increased risk of low-energy fracture (aIRR 2.13, 95% CI: 1.93-2.35) and of other fracture (aIRR 2.18, 95% CI: 2.02-2.34). Compared with cleared HCV-infection, chronic HCV-infection was not associated with increased risk of fracture at any site (aIRR 1.08, 95% CI: 0.97-1.20), or other fracture (aIRR 1.04, 95% CI: 0.91-1.19). The aIRR for low-energy fracture was 1.20 (95% CI: 0.99-1.44).

CONCLUSIONS

HCV-exposed patients had increased risk of all fracture types. In contrast, overall risk of fracture did not differ between patients with chronic vs. cleared HCV-infection, although chronic HCV-infection might be associated with a small excess risk of low-energy fractures. Our study suggests that fracture risk in HCV-infected patients is multi-factorial and mainly determined by lifestyle-related factors associated with HCV-exposure.

Serum sclerostin in hepatitis C virus infected patients

Background

Sclerostin inhibits osteoblast functions, differentiations, and survival rates. As an endogenous inhibitor of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, the sclerostin should be related to decreased bone masses, although several studies indicate opposite results. In addition, it may be related to insulin resistances and carbohydrate metabolisms, a relation shared with other markers of bone metabolisms, such as osteocalcin. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infected patients may present osteoporosis, and frequently show liver steatosis, which is a consequence of insulin resistance. The behaviour of sclerostin in these patients is yet unknown. The aim of this work is to analyse the relationships between serum sclerostin and osteocalcin levels and bone mineral density (BMD), liver functions, the intensity of liver steatosis and biochemical markers of bone homeostasis and insulin resistance in HCV-infected patients.

Methods

Forty HCV patients with 20 years of age and gender-matching controls were included in this study and underwent bone densitometry. Serum sclerostin, osteocalcin, collagen telopeptide, adiponectin, leptin, insulin, resistin, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin (IL)-6 were determined. Liver fat was histomorphometrically assessed.

Results

Sclerostin levels were slightly higher in patients than in controls, and were directly related to BMD at different parts of the skeleton, also to the serum telopeptide, and to the liver steatosis and TNF-α. On the contrary, osteocalcin showed a significant direct relationship with serum adiponectin, and an inverse one with IL-6.

Conclusions

Serum sclerostin levels were within the normal range in HCV patients, and correlated directly with BMD and serum telopeptide. In addition, the relationships of sclerostin and osteocalcin with variables associated with insulin resistance suggested the role of bones for intermediary metabolisms.