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Vieira GV, Somera dos Santos F, Lepique AP, da Fonseca CK, Innocentini LMAR, Braz-Silva PH, Quintana SM, Sales KU. Proteases and HPV-Induced Carcinogenesis. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14133038. [PMID: 35804810 PMCID: PMC9264903 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14133038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a sexually transmitted disease with high prevalence worldwide. Although most HPV infections do not lead to cancer, some HPV types are correlated with the majority of cervical cancers, and with some anogenital and oropharyngeal cancers. Moreover, enzymes known as proteases play an essential role in the pathogenic process in HPV-induced carcinogenesis. This review highlights the role of proteases and recent epidemiological data regarding HPV-dependent carcinogenesis. Abstract Persistent infection with Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the main etiologic factor for pre-malignant and malignant cervical lesions. Moreover, HPV is also associated with oropharynx and other anogenital carcinomas. Cancer-causing HPV viruses classified as group 1 carcinogens include 12 HPV types, with HPV 16 and 18 being the most prevalent. High-risk HPVs express two oncoproteins, E6 and E7, the products of which are responsible for the inhibition of p53 and pRB proteins, respectively, in human keratinocytes and cellular immortalization. p53 and pRB are pleiotropic proteins that regulate the activity of several signaling pathways and gene expression. Among the important factors that are augmented in HPV-mediated carcinogenesis, proteases not only control processes involved in cellular carcinogenesis but also control the microenvironment. For instance, genetic polymorphisms of matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1) are associated with carcinoma invasiveness. Similarly, the serine protease inhibitors hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor-1 (HAI-1) and -2 (HAI-2) have been identified as prognostic markers for HPV-dependent cervical carcinomas. This review highlights the most crucial mechanisms involved in HPV-dependent carcinogenesis, and includes a section on the proteolytic cascades that are important for the progression of this disease and their impact on patient health, treatment, and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Viliod Vieira
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Pathogenic Bioagents, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil; (G.V.V.); (C.K.d.F.); (L.M.A.R.I.)
| | - Fernanda Somera dos Santos
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil; (F.S.d.S.); (S.M.Q.)
| | - Ana Paula Lepique
- Department of Immunology, Biomedical Sciences Institute, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-000, SP, Brazil;
| | - Carol Kobori da Fonseca
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Pathogenic Bioagents, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil; (G.V.V.); (C.K.d.F.); (L.M.A.R.I.)
| | - Lara Maria Alencar Ramos Innocentini
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Pathogenic Bioagents, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil; (G.V.V.); (C.K.d.F.); (L.M.A.R.I.)
- Clinical Hospital of Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirao Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Paulo Henrique Braz-Silva
- Department of Stomatology, School of Dentistry, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, SP, Brazil;
- Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Tropical Medicine of Sao Paulo, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05403-000, SP, Brazil
| | - Silvana Maria Quintana
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil; (F.S.d.S.); (S.M.Q.)
| | - Katiuchia Uzzun Sales
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Pathogenic Bioagents, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil; (G.V.V.); (C.K.d.F.); (L.M.A.R.I.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-16-3315-9113
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2
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Skwarecki AS, Nowak MG, Milewska MJ. Amino Acid and Peptide-Based Antiviral Agents. ChemMedChem 2021; 16:3106-3135. [PMID: 34254457 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
A significant number of antiviral agents used in clinical practice are amino acids, short peptides, or peptidomimetics. Among them, several HIV protease inhibitors (e. g. lopinavir, atazanavir), HCV protease inhibitors (e. g. grazoprevir, glecaprevir), and HCV NS5A protein inhibitors have contributed to a significant decrease in mortality from AIDS and hepatitis. However, there is an ongoing need for the discovery of new antiviral agents and the development of existing drugs; amino acids, both proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic in nature, serve as convenient building blocks for this purpose. The synthesis of non-proteinogenic amino acid components of antiviral agents could be challenging due to the need for enantiomerically or diastereomerically pure products. Herein, we present a concise review of antiviral agents whose structures are based on amino acids of both natural and unnatural origin. Special attention is paid to the synthetic aspects of non-proteinogenic amino acid components of those agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej S Skwarecki
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry and BioTechMed Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 Gabriela Narutowicza Street, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Michał G Nowak
- Department of Organic Chemistry and BioTechMed Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 Gabriela Narutowicza Street, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Maria J Milewska
- Department of Organic Chemistry and BioTechMed Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 Gabriela Narutowicza Street, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
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Shrivastava N, Husain A, Rashid M, Alsabeelah NF, Karim S, Siddiqui NA. Recent Advances Towards Treatment of HIV: Synthesis and SAR Studies. Mini Rev Med Chem 2021; 21:471-499. [PMID: 30864523 DOI: 10.2174/1389557519666190312170158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, authors want to encourage the research exertions through structureactivity relationship for the identification of effective molecules for the treatment of Human immunodeficiency virus because nowadays AIDS is considered as one of the main causes of death in human beings. A diversity of biological resources has been searched and developed for the treatment of HIV but unfortunately, until now, no medicine is found to be fully effective and safe for the cure of patients. Human immunodeficiency virus is a type of lentivirus which causes the infection of HIV and once it enters the human body, it stays for a longer period of time triggering immunodeficiency syndrome. For searching and developing new potent and effective anti-HIV molecules, medicinal chemists have engaged in countless targets with the structure-activity relationship (SAR) of molecules and on this basis, many antiretroviral therapies have been developed to cure HIV infection. Most of these new searched molecules have been found to be clinically active against various types of AIDS patient and auxiliary research in this area may lead to better treatment in the near future. This article encompasses and highlights the recent advancement of innumerable inhibitors laterally through synthetic, semi-synthetic and structure-activity relationship approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neelima Shrivastava
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard (Hamdard University), New Delhi 110062, India
| | - Asif Husain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard (Hamdard University), New Delhi 110062, India
| | - Mohammad Rashid
- College of Pharmacy and Dentistry, Buraydah Colleges, Buraydah, Al-Qassim 31717, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nimer Fehaid Alsabeelah
- College of Pharmacy and Dentistry, Buraydah Colleges, Buraydah, Al-Qassim 31717, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shahid Karim
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nasir Ali Siddiqui
- Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
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4
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Design and biological evaluation of novel HIV-1 protease inhibitors with isopropanol as P1' ligand to enhance binding with S1' subsite. Bioorg Med Chem 2020; 28:115623. [PMID: 32690263 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2020.115623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Newly designed HIV-1 protease inhibitors that maximize interactions with the protein backbone, especially in the form of hydrogen bonds, may enhance the antiviral potency of these compounds and minimize acquisition of drug-resistant mutations. Herein, we described a series of new HIV-1 PIs containing phenols as the P2 ligands and chiral isopropanol as the P1' ligands, in combination with 4-trifluoromethylphenylsulfonamide or 4-nitrophenylsulfonamide as the P2' ligands. And most of these compounds exhibited nanomolar inhibitory potency. In particular, inhibitors 13c and 13e with 4-trifluoromethylphenylsulfonamide as the P2' ligand and (R) - isopropanol as the P1' ligand, exhibited antiviral IC50 values of 1.64 nM and 2.33 nM, respectively. Furthermore, they also showed remarkable activity against wild-type and DRV-resistant HIV-1 variants that raised the prospect of designing more effective PIs further.
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5
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Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of HIV-1 protease inhibitors with morpholine derivatives as P2 ligands in combination with cyclopropyl as P1' ligand. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:127019. [PMID: 32057582 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.127019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A series of novel HIV-1 protease inhibitors has been designed and synthesized, which contained morpholine derivatives as the P2 ligands and hydrophobic cyclopropyl as the P1' ligand at the meantime in this study, with the aim of improving the interactions between the active sites of HIV-1 protease and the inhibitors. Twenty-eight compounds were synthesized and assessed, among which inhibitors m18 and m1 exhibited excellent inhibitory effect on the activity of HIV-1 protease with IC50 value of 47 nM and 53 nM, respectively. The molecular modeling of m1 revealed possible hydrogen bondings or van der Waals between the inhibitor and the protease, worthy of in-depth study.
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6
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Voshavar C. Protease Inhibitors for the Treatment of HIV/AIDS: Recent Advances and Future Challenges. Curr Top Med Chem 2019; 19:1571-1598. [PMID: 31237209 DOI: 10.2174/1568026619666190619115243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a chronic disease characterized by multiple life-threatening illnesses caused by a retro-virus, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). HIV infection slowly destroys the immune system and increases the risk of various other infections and diseases. Although, there is no immediate cure for HIV infection/AIDS, several drugs targeting various cruxes of HIV infection are used to slow down the progress of the disease and to boost the immune system. One of the key therapeutic strategies is Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) or ' AIDS cocktail' in a general sense, which is a customized combination of anti-retroviral drugs designed to combat the HIV infection. Since HAART's inception in 1995, this treatment was found to be effective in improving the life expectancy of HIV patients over two decades. Among various classes of HAART treatment regimen, Protease Inhibitors (PIs) are known to be widely used as a major component and found to be effective in treating HIV infection/AIDS. For the past several years, a variety of protease inhibitors have been reported. This review outlines the drug design strategies of PIs, chemical and pharmacological characteristics of some mechanism-based inhibitors, summarizes the recent developments in small molecule based drug discovery with HIV protease as a drug target. Further discussed are the pharmacology, PI drug resistance on HIV PR, adverse effects of HIV PIs and challenges/impediments in the successful application of HIV PIs as an important class of drugs in HAART regimen for the effective treatment of AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandrashekhar Voshavar
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL 32307, United States
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7
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Huang YM, Alharbi NS, Sun B, Shantharam CS, Rakesh KP, Qin HL. Synthetic routes and structure-activity relationships (SAR) of anti-HIV agents: A key review. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 181:111566. [PMID: 31401538 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.111566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The worldwide increase of AIDS, an epidemic infection in constant development has an essential and still requires potent antiretroviral chemotherapeutic agents for reducing the integer of deaths caused by HIV. Thus, there is an urgent need for new anti-HIV drug candidates with increased strength, new targets, superior pharmacokinetic properties, and compact side effects. From this viewpoint, we first review present strategies of anti-HIV drug innovation and the synthesis of heterocyclic or natural compound as anti-HIV agents for facilitating the development of more influential and successful anti-HIV agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Mei Huang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Science, Wuhan University of Technology, 205 Luoshi Road, Wuhan, 430070, PR China
| | - Njud S Alharbi
- Biotechnology Research Group, Deportment of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bing Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Science, Wuhan University of Technology, 205 Luoshi Road, Wuhan, 430070, PR China.
| | - C S Shantharam
- Department of Chemistry, Pooja Bhagavath Memorial Mahajana Education Centre, Mysuru, 570016, Karnataka, India
| | - K P Rakesh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Science, Wuhan University of Technology, 205 Luoshi Road, Wuhan, 430070, PR China.
| | - Hua-Li Qin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Science, Wuhan University of Technology, 205 Luoshi Road, Wuhan, 430070, PR China.
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8
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Vadhadiya PM, Jean MA, Bouzriba C, Tremblay T, Lagüe P, Fortin S, Boukouvalas J, Giguère D. Diversity-Oriented Synthesis of Diol-Based Peptidomimetics as Potential HIV Protease Inhibitors and Antitumor Agents. Chembiochem 2018; 19:1779-1791. [PMID: 29858881 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201800247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Peptidomimetic HIV protease inhibitors are an important class of drugs used in the treatment of AIDS. The synthesis of a new type of diol-based peptidomimetics is described. Our route is flexible, uses d-glucal as an inexpensive starting material, and makes minimal use of protection/deprotection cycles. Binding affinities from molecular docking simulations suggest that these compounds are potential inhibitors of HIV protease. Moreover, the antiproliferative activities of compounds 33 a, 35 a, and 35 b on HT-29, M21, and MCF7 cancer cell lines are in the low micromolar range. The results provide a platform that could facilitate the development of medically relevant asymmetrical diol-based peptidomimetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paresh M Vadhadiya
- Département de Chimie, Université Laval-RQRM, 1045 Avenue de la Médecine, Quebec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Marc-Alexandre Jean
- Département de Chimie, Université Laval-RQRM, 1045 Avenue de la Médecine, Quebec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Chahrazed Bouzriba
- CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Oncology Division, Hôpital Saint-François d'Assise, 10 rue de l'Espinay, Quebec City, QC, G1L 3L5, Canada
- Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Thomas Tremblay
- Département de Chimie, Université Laval-RQRM, 1045 Avenue de la Médecine, Quebec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Patrick Lagüe
- Départment de Biochimie, de Microbiologie et de Bio-Informatique, Université Laval, 1045, Avenue de la Médecine, Quebec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Sébastien Fortin
- CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Oncology Division, Hôpital Saint-François d'Assise, 10 rue de l'Espinay, Quebec City, QC, G1L 3L5, Canada
- Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - John Boukouvalas
- Département de Chimie, Université Laval-RQRM, 1045 Avenue de la Médecine, Quebec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Denis Giguère
- Département de Chimie, Université Laval-RQRM, 1045 Avenue de la Médecine, Quebec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
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Bull JA, Croft RA, Davis OA, Doran R, Morgan KF. Oxetanes: Recent Advances in Synthesis, Reactivity, and Medicinal Chemistry. Chem Rev 2016; 116:12150-12233. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- James A. Bull
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Rosemary A. Croft
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Owen A. Davis
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Doran
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Kate F. Morgan
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
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Ghosh AK, Osswald HL, Prato G. Recent Progress in the Development of HIV-1 Protease Inhibitors for the Treatment of HIV/AIDS. J Med Chem 2016; 59:5172-208. [PMID: 26799988 PMCID: PMC5598487 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 282] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
HIV-1 protease inhibitors continue to play an important role in the treatment of HIV/AIDS, transforming this deadly ailment into a more manageable chronic infection. Over the years, intensive research has led to a variety of approved protease inhibitors for the treatment of HIV/AIDS. In this review, we outline current drug design and medicinal chemistry efforts toward the development of next-generation protease inhibitors beyond the currently approved drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun K. Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
| | - Heather L. Osswald
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
| | - Gary Prato
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
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Khumsubdee S, Zhou H, Burgess K. Homo-Roche ester derivatives by asymmetric hydrogenation and organocatalysis. J Org Chem 2013; 78:11948-55. [PMID: 24219839 DOI: 10.1021/jo401996m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Asymmetric hydrogenation routes to homologues of The Roche ester tend to be restricted to hydrogenations of itaconic acid derivatives, that is, substrates that contain a relatively unhindered, 1,1-disubstituted alkene. This is because in hydrogenations mediated by RhP2 complexes, the typical catalysts, it is difficult to obtain high conversions using the alternative substrate for the same product, the isomeric trisubstituted alkenes (D in the text). However, chemoselective modification of the identical functional groups in itaconic acid derivatives are difficult; hence, it would be favorable to use the trisubstituted alkene. Trisubstituted alkene substrates can be hydrogenated with high conversions using chiral analogs of Crabtree's catalyst of the type IrN(carbene). This paper demonstrates that such reactions are scalable (tens of grams) and can be manipulated to give optically pure homo-Roche ester chirons. Organocatalytic fluorination, chlorination, and amination of the homo-Roche building blocks was performed to demonstrate that they could easily be transformed into functionalized materials with two chiral centers and α,ω-groups that provide extensive scope for modifications. A synthesis of (S,S)- and (R,S)-γ-hydroxyvaline was performed to illustrate one application of the amination product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakunchai Khumsubdee
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University , P.O. Box 30012, College Station, Texas 77841, United States
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Chiummiento L, Funicello M, Lupattelli P, Tramutola F, Berti F, Marino-Merlo F. Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel small non-peptidic HIV-1 PIs: The benzothiophene ring as an effective moiety. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:2948-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.02.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2012] [Revised: 02/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/15/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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13
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Castro HC, Abreu PA, Geraldo RB, Martins RCA, dos Santos R, Loureiro NIV, Cabral LM, Rodrigues CR. Looking at the proteases from a simple perspective. J Mol Recognit 2011; 24:165-81. [PMID: 21360607 DOI: 10.1002/jmr.1091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Proteases have received enormous interest from the research and medical communities because of their significant roles in several human diseases. Some examples include the involvement of thrombin in thrombosis, HIV-1 protease in Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, cruzain in Trypanosoma cruzi infection, and membrane-type 1 matrix metalloproteinase in tumor invasion and metastasis. Many efforts has been undertaken to design effective inhibitors featuring potent inhibitory activity, specificity, and metabolic stability to those proteases involved in such pathologies. Protease inhibitors usually target the active site, but some of them act by other inhibitory mechanisms. The understanding of the structure-function relationships of proteases and inhibitors has an impact on new inhibitor drugs designing. In this paper, the structures of four proteases (thrombin, HIV-protease, cruzain, and a matrix metalloproteinase) are briefly reviewed, and used as examples of the importance of proteases for the development of new treatment strategies, leading to a longer and healthier life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena C Castro
- LABioMol, Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, 24001-970, Brazil.
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