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Ladefoged LK, Munro L, Pedersen AJ, Lummis SCR, Bang-Andersen B, Balle T, Schiøtt B, Kristensen AS. Modeling and Mutational Analysis of the Binding Mode for the Multimodal Antidepressant Drug Vortioxetine to the Human 5-HT3A Receptor. Mol Pharmacol 2018; 94:1421-1434. [DOI: 10.1124/mol.118.113530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
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Price KL, Lillestol RK, Ulens C, Lummis SCR. Palonosetron-5-HT 3 Receptor Interactions As Shown by a Binding Protein Cocrystal Structure. ACS Chem Neurosci 2016; 7:1641-1646. [PMID: 27656911 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Palonosetron is a potent 5-HT3 receptor antagonist and an effective therapeutic agent against emesis. Here we identify the molecular determinants of compound recognition in the receptor binding site by obtaining a high resolution structure of palonosetron bound to an engineered acetylcholine binding protein that mimics the 5-HT3 receptor binding site, termed 5-HTBP, and by examining the potency of palonosetron in a range of 5-HT3 receptors with mutated binding site residues. The structural data indicate that palonosetron forms a tight and effective wedge in the binding pocket, made possible by its rigid tricyclic ring structure and its interactions with binding site residues; it adopts a binding pose that is distinct from the related antiemetics granisetron and tropisetron. The functional data show many residues previously shown to interact with agonists and antagonists in the binding site are important for palonosetron binding, and indicate those of particular importance are W183 (a cation-π interaction and a hydrogen bond) and Y153 (a hydrogen bond). This information, and the availability of the structure of palonosetron bound to 5-HTBP, should aid the development of novel and more efficacious drugs that act via 5-HT3 receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry L. Price
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, United Kingdom
| | - Reidun K. Lillestol
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Ulens
- The
Laboratory of Structural Neurobiology, Department of Cellular and
Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49,
PB 601, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sarah C. R. Lummis
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, United Kingdom
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Kozuska JL, Paulsen IM, Belfield WJ, Martin IL, Cole DJ, Holt A, Dunn SMJ. Impact of intracellular domain flexibility upon properties of activated human 5-HT3 receptors. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 171:1617-28. [PMID: 24283776 PMCID: PMC3966743 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose It has been proposed that arginine residues lining the intracellular portals of the homomeric 5-HT3A receptor cause electrostatic repulsion of cation flow, accounting for a single-channel conductance substantially lower than that of the 5-HT3AB heteromer. However, comparison of receptor homology models for wild-type pentamers suggests that salt bridges in the intracellular domain of the homomer may impart structural rigidity, and we hypothesized that this rigidity could account for the low conductance. Experimental Approach Mutations were introduced into the portal region of the human 5-HT3A homopentamer, such that putative salt bridges were broken by neutralizing anionic partners. Single-channel and whole cell currents were measured in transfected tsA201 cells and in Xenopus oocytes respectively. Computational simulations of protein flexibility facilitated comparison of wild-type and mutant receptors. Key Results Single-channel conductance was increased substantially, often to wild-type heteromeric receptor values, in most 5-HT3A mutants. Conversely, introduction of arginine residues to the portal region of the heteromer, conjecturally creating salt bridges, decreased conductance. Gating kinetics varied significantly between different mutant receptors. EC50 values for whole-cell responses to 5-HT remained largely unchanged, but Hill coefficients for responses to 5-HT were usually significantly smaller in mutants. Computational simulations suggested increased flexibility throughout the protein structure as a consequence of mutations in the intracellular domain. Conclusions and Implications These data support a role for intracellular salt bridges in maintaining the quaternary structure of the 5-HT3 receptor and suggest a role for the intracellular domain in allosteric modulation of cooperativity and agonist efficacy. Linked Article This article is commented on by Vardy and Kenakin, pp. 1614–1616 of volume 171 issue 7. To view this commentary visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.12550.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Kozuska
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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Thompson AJ, Lummis SCR. Discriminating between 5-HT₃A and 5-HT₃AB receptors. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 169:736-47. [PMID: 23489111 PMCID: PMC3687655 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2012] [Revised: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The 5-HT3B subunit was first cloned in 1999, and co-expression with the 5-HT3A subunit results in heteromeric 5-HT₃AB receptors that are functionally distinct from homomeric 5-HT₃A receptors. The affinities of competitive ligands at the two receptor subtypes are usually similar, but those of non-competitive antagonists that bind in the pore often differ. A competitive ligand and allosteric modulator that distinguishes 5-HT₃A from 5-HT₃AB receptors has recently been described, and the number of non-competitive antagonists identified with this ability has increased in recent years. In this review, we discuss the differences between 5-HT₃A and 5-HT₃AB receptors and describe the possible sites of action of compounds that can distinguish between them.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Thompson
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Hothersall JD, Moffat C, Connolly CN. Prolonged inhibition of 5-HT₃ receptors by palonosetron results from surface receptor inhibition rather than inducing receptor internalization. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 169:1252-62. [PMID: 23581504 PMCID: PMC3831706 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Revised: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 03/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist palonosetron is an important treatment for emesis and nausea during cancer therapy. Its clinical efficacy may result from its unique binding and clearance characteristics and receptor down-regulation mechanisms. We investigated the mechanisms by which palonosetron exerts its long-term inhibition of 5-HT₃ receptors for a better understanding of its clinical efficacy. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Cell surface receptors (recombinantly expressed 5HT₃A or 5HT₃AB in COS-7 cells) were monitored using [³H]granisetron binding and ELISA after exposure to palonosetron. Receptor endocytosis was investigated using immunofluorescence microscopy. KEY RESULTS Chronic exposure to palonosetron reduced the number of available cell surface [³H]granisetron binding sites. This down-regulation was not sensitive to either low temperature or pharmacological inhibitors of endocytosis (dynasore or nystatin) suggesting that internalization did not play a role. This was corroborated by our observation that there was no change in cell surface 5-HT₃ receptor levels or increase in endocytic rate. Palonosetron exhibited slow dissociation from the receptor over many hours, with a significant proportion of binding sites being occupied for at least 4 days. Furthermore, our observations suggest that chronic receptor down-regulation involved interactions with an allosteric binding site. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Palonosetron acts as a pseudo-irreversible antagonist causing prolonged inhibition of 5-HT₃ receptors due to its very slow dissociation. In addition, an irreversible binding mode persists for at least 4 days. Allosteric receptor interactions appear to play a role in this phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Daniel Hothersall
- Division of Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute, Ninewells Medical School, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
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6
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Paolino M, Mennuni L, Giuliani G, Anzini M, Lanza M, Caselli G, Galimberti C, Menziani MC, Donati A, Cappelli A. Dendrimeric tetravalent ligands for the serotonin-gated ion channel. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:8582-5. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cc02502d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Del Cadia M, De Rienzo F, Weston DA, Thompson AJ, Menziani MC, Lummis SC. Exploring a potential palonosetron allosteric binding site in the 5-HT(3) receptor. Bioorg Med Chem 2013; 21:7523-8. [PMID: 24128813 PMCID: PMC3898987 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2013.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2013] [Revised: 09/10/2013] [Accepted: 09/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Palonosetron (Aloxi) is a potent second generation 5-HT(3) receptor antagonist whose mechanism of action is not yet fully understood. Palonosetron acts at the 5-HT(3) receptor binding site but recent computational studies indicated other possible sites of action in the extracellular domain. To test this hypothesis we mutated a series of residues in the 5-HT3A receptor subunit (Tyr(73), Phe(130), Ser(163), and Asp(165)) and in the 5-HT3B receptor subunit (His(73), Phe(130), Glu(170), and Tyr(143)) that were previously predicted by in silico docking studies to interact with palonosetron. Homomeric (5-HT(3)A) and heteromeric (5-HT(3)AB) receptors were then expressed in HEK293 cells to determine the potency of palonosetron using both fluorimetric and radioligand methods to test function and ligand binding, respectively. The data show that the substitutions have little or no effect on palonosetron inhibition of 5-HT-evoked responses or binding. In contrast, substitutions in the orthosteric binding site abolish palonosetron binding. Overall, the data support a binding site for palonosetron at the classic orthosteric binding pocket between two 5-HT3A receptor subunits but not at allosteric sites previously identified by in silico modelling and docking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Del Cadia
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 183, 41100 Modena, Italy
| | - Francesca De Rienzo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 183, 41100 Modena, Italy
| | - David A. Weston
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Andrew J. Thompson
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Maria Cristina Menziani
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 183, 41100 Modena, Italy
| | - Sarah C.R. Lummis
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 183, 41100 Modena, Italy
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, UK
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Approaching the 5-HT₃ receptor heterogeneity by computational studies of the transmembrane and intracellular domains. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2013; 27:491-509. [PMID: 23771549 DOI: 10.1007/s10822-013-9658-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
5-hydroxytryptamine type-3 receptor (5-HT₃), an important target of many neuroactive drugs, is a cation selective transmembrane pentamer whose functional stoichiometries and subunit arrangements are still debated, due to the extreme complexity of the system. The three dimensional structure of the 5-HT₃R subunits has not been solved so far. Moreover, most of the available structural and functional data is related to the extracellular ligand-binding domain, whereas the transmembrane and the intracellular receptor domains are far less characterised, although they are crucial for receptor function. Here, for the first time, 3D homology models of the transmembrane and the intracellular receptor domains of all the known human 5-HT₃ subunits have been built and assembled into homopentameric (5-HT(3A)R, 5-HT(3B)R, 5-HT(3C)R, 5-HT(3D)R and 5-HT(3E)R) and heteropentameric receptors (5-HT(3AB), 5-HT(3AC), 5-HT(3AD) and 5-HT(3AE)), on the basis of the known three-dimensional structures of the nicotinic-acetylcholine receptor and of the ligand gated channel from Erwinia chrysanthemi. The comparative analyses of sequences, modelled structures, and computed electrostatic properties of the single subunits and of the assembled pentamers shed new light both on the stoichiometric composition and on the physicochemical requirements of the functional receptors. In particular, it emerges that a favourable environment for the crossing of the pore at the transmembrane and intracellular C terminus domain levels by Ca²⁺ ions is granted by the maximum presence of two B subunits in the 5-HT₃ pentamer.
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Lummis SCR, Thompson AJ. Agonists and antagonists induce different palonosetron dissociation rates in 5-HT₃A and 5-HT₃AB receptors. Neuropharmacology 2013; 73:241-6. [PMID: 23747573 PMCID: PMC3778450 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2013] [Revised: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 05/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Palonosetron is a potent 5-HT3 receptor antagonist with a unique structure and some unusual properties. Here we explore the properties of palonosetron at heterologously expressed 5-HT3A and 5-HT3AB receptors. We used receptors expressed in HEK293 cells, and functionally analysed them using a membrane potential sensitive dye in a Flexstation, which revealed IC50s of 0.24 nM and 0.18 nM for 5-HT3A and 5-HT3AB receptors respectively. Radioligand binding studies with [3H]palonosetron revealed similar Kds: 0.34 nM for 5-HT3A and 0.15 nM for 5-HT3AB receptors. Kinetic studies showed palonosetron association and dissociation rates were slightly faster in 5-HT3AB than 5-HT3A receptors, and for both subtypes dissociation rates were ligand-dependent, with antagonists causing more rapid dissociation than agonists. Similar ligand effects were not observed for [3H]granisetron dissociation studies. These data support previous studies which show palonosetron has actions distinct to other 5-HT3 receptor antagonists, and the slow rates observed for agonist induced dissociation (t1/2 > 10 h) could at least partly explain the long duration of palonosetron effects in vivo. Palonosetron IC50s and Kds for 5-HT3A and 5-HT3AB receptors in HEK293 cells are similar. Palonosetron association and dissociation rates are slower at 5-HT3A than 5-HT3AB receptors. Agonist-induced palonosetron dissociation rates are slower than those for antagonists in both 5-HT3A and 5-HT3AB receptors. Agonist- and antagonist-induced granisetron dissociation rates are similar in both 5-HT3A and 5-HT3AB receptors. Palonosetron and granisetron have distinct actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C R Lummis
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, UK.
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10
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Thompson AJ. Recent developments in 5-HT3 receptor pharmacology. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2013; 34:100-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2012.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Revised: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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De Rienzo F, Del Cadia M, Menziani MC. A first step towards the understanding of the 5-HT3 receptor subunit heterogeneity from a computational point of view. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2012; 14:12625-36. [PMID: 22880201 DOI: 10.1039/c2cp41028a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The functional serotonin type-3 receptor (5-HT(3)-R), which is the target of many neuroactive drugs, is known to be a homopentamer made of five identical subunits A (5-HT(3A)-R) or a binary heteropentamer made of subunits A and B (5-HT(3A/B)-R) with a still debated arrangement and stoichiometry. This complex picture has been recently further complicated by the discovery of additional 5-HT(3)-R subunits, C, D, and E, which, similarly to the B subunit, are apparently able to form functional receptors only if co-expressed with subunit A. Being the binding site for both serotonin and antagonists (i.e. drugs) located at the extracellular interface between two adjacent subunits, the large variability of the 5-HT(3)-R composition becomes a crucial issue, since it can originate many different interfaces providing non-equivalent ligand binding sites and complicating the pharmacological modulation. Here, the different 5-HT(3)-R interfaces are analysed, on the bases of the structural conformations of previously built 3D homology models and of the known subunit sequences, by addressing their physicochemical characterization. The results confirm the presence of an aromatic cluster located in the core of the A-A interface as a key determinant for having an interface both stable and functional. This is used as a discriminant to make hypotheses about the capability of all the other possible interfaces constituted by the known 5-HT(3)-R sequences A, B, C, D, and E to build active receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca De Rienzo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 183, 41100 Modena, Italy
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De Rienzo F, Moura Barbosa AJ, Perez MA, Fernandes PA, Ramos MJ, Menziani MC. The extracellular subunit interface of the 5-HT3receptors: a computational alanine scanning mutagenesis study. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2012; 30:280-98. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2012.680029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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13
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Thompson AJ, Verheij MHP, de Esch IJP, Lummis SCR. VUF10166, a novel compound with differing activities at 5-HT₃A and 5-HT₃AB receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2012; 341:350-9. [PMID: 22306960 PMCID: PMC3336813 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.111.190769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2011] [Accepted: 01/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The actions of a novel, potent 5-HT₃ receptor ligand, [2-chloro-(4-methylpiperazine-1-yl)quinoxaline (VUF10166)], were examined at heterologously expressed human 5-HT₃A and 5-HT₃AB receptors. VUF10166 displaced [³H]granisetron binding to 5-HT₃A receptors expressed in human embryonic kidney cells with high affinity (K(i) = 0.04 nM) but was less potent at 5-HT₃AB receptors (K(i) = 22 nM). Dissociation of [³H]granisetron in the presence of VUF10166 was best fit with a single time constant (t(1/2) = 53 min) at 5-HT₃A receptors, but with two time constants (t(1/2) = 55 and 2.4 min) at 5-HT₃AB receptors. Electrophysiological studies in oocytes revealed that VUF10166 inhibited 5-HT-induced responses at 5-HT₃A receptors at nanomolar concentrations, but inhibition and recovery were too slow to determine an IC₅₀. At 5-HT₃AB receptors, inhibition and recovery were faster, yielding an IC₅₀ of 40 nM. Cysteine substitutions in the complementary (-), but not the principal (+), face of the 5-HT₃B subunit produced heteromeric receptors in which the actions of VUF10166 resembled those at homomeric receptors. At 5-HT₃A receptors, VUF10166 at higher concentrations also behaved as a partial agonist (EC₅₀ = 5.2 μM; R(max) = 0.24) but did not elicit significant responses at 5-HT₃AB receptors at ≤100 μM. Thus, we propose that VUF10166 binds to the common A+A- site of both receptor types and to a second A+B- modulatory site in the heteromeric receptor. The ability of VUF10166 to distinguish between 5-HT₃A and 5-HT₃AB receptors could help evaluate differences between these receptor types and has potential therapeutic value.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Thompson
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Cappelli A, Manini M, Paolino M, Gallelli A, Anzini M, Mennuni L, Del Cadia M, De Rienzo F, Menziani MC, Vomero S. Bivalent Ligands for the Serotonin 5-HT3 Receptor. ACS Med Chem Lett 2011; 2:571-6. [PMID: 24900351 DOI: 10.1021/ml2000388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2011] [Accepted: 05/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The serotonin 5-HT3 receptor is a ligand-gated ion channel, which by virtue of its pentameric architecture, can be considered to be an intriguing example of intrinsically multivalent biological receptors. This paper describes a general design approach to the study of multivalency in this multimeric ion channel. Bivalent ligands for 5-HT3 receptor have been designed by linking an arylpiperazine moiety to probes showing different functional features. Both homobivalent and heterobivalent ligands have shown 5-HT3 receptor affinity in the nanomolar range, providing evidence for the viability of our design approach. Moreover, the high affinity shown by homobivalent ligands suggests that bivalency is a promising approach in 5-HT3 receptor modulation and provides the rational basis for applying the concepts of multivalency to the study of 5-HT3 receptor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Cappelli
- Dipartimento Farmaco Chimico Tecnologico and European Research Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Università di Siena, Via A. Moro, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Monica Manini
- Dipartimento Farmaco Chimico Tecnologico and European Research Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Università di Siena, Via A. Moro, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Marco Paolino
- Dipartimento Farmaco Chimico Tecnologico and European Research Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Università di Siena, Via A. Moro, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Andrea Gallelli
- Dipartimento Farmaco Chimico Tecnologico and European Research Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Università di Siena, Via A. Moro, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Maurizio Anzini
- Dipartimento Farmaco Chimico Tecnologico and European Research Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Università di Siena, Via A. Moro, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Laura Mennuni
- Rottapharm Madaus, Via Valosa di Sopra 9, 20052 Monza, Italy
| | - Marta Del Cadia
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 183, 41100 Modena, Italy
| | - Francesca De Rienzo
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 183, 41100 Modena, Italy
- Centro S3, CNR-Istituto di Nanoscienze, Via Campi 213A, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - M. Cristina Menziani
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 183, 41100 Modena, Italy
| | - Salvatore Vomero
- Dipartimento Farmaco Chimico Tecnologico and European Research Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Università di Siena, Via A. Moro, 53100 Siena, Italy
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