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Lei JD, Li Q, Zhang SB, Lv YY, Zhai HC, Wei S, Ma PA, Hu YS. Transcriptomic and biochemical analyses revealed antifungal mechanism of trans-anethole on Aspergillus flavus growth. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 107:7213-7230. [PMID: 37733053 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12791-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Plant volatile compounds have great potential for preventing and controlling fungal spoilage in post-harvest grains. Recently, we have reported the antifungal effects of trans-anethole, the main volatile constituent of the Illicium verum fruit, on Aspergillus flavus. In this study, the inhibitory mechanisms of trans-anethole against the growth of A. flavus mycelia were investigated using transcriptomic and biochemical analyses. Biochemical and transcriptomic changes in A. flavus mycelia were evaluated after exposure to 0.2 μL/mL trans-anethole. Scanning electron microscopy showed that trans-anethole treatment resulted in the surface wrinkling of A. flavus mycelia, and calcofluor white staining confirmed that trans-anethole treatment disrupted the mycelial cell wall structure. Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide double staining suggested that trans-anethole induced apoptosis in A. flavus mycelia. Reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and DNA damage were observed in trans-anethole-treated A. flavus mycelia using 5,5',6,6'-tetrachloro-1,1',3,3'-tetraethyl-imidacarbocyanine and 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining, respectively. 2',7'- Dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate staining and biochemical assays demonstrated that trans-anethole treatment cause the accumulation of reactive oxygen species in the A. flavus mycelia. Transcriptome results showed that 1673 genes were differentially expressed in A. flavus mycelia exposed to trans-anethole, which were mainly associated with multidrug transport, oxidative phosphorylation, citric acid cycle, ribosomes, and cyclic adenosine monophosphate signaling. We propose that trans-anethole can inhibit the growth of A. flavus mycelia by disrupting the cell wall structure, blocking the multidrug transport process, disturbing the citric acid cycle, and inducing apoptosis. This study provides new insights into the inhibitory mechanism of trans-anethole on A. flavus mycelia and will be helpful for the development of natural fungicides. KEY POINTS: • Biochemical analyses of A. flavus mycelia exposed to trans-anethole were performed • Transcriptomic changes in trans-anethole-treated A. flavus mycelia were analyzed • An inhibitory mechanism of trans-anethole on the growth of A. flavus mycelia was proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Dong Lei
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiong Li
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuai-Bing Zhang
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yang-Yong Lv
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Huan-Chen Zhai
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Shan Wei
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping-An Ma
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan-Sen Hu
- School of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
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Zhou H, Jian Y, Shao Q, Guo F, Zhang M, Wan F, Yang L, Liu Y, Yang L, Li Y, Yang P, Li Z, Li S, Ding W. Development of Sustainable Insecticide Candidates for Protecting Pollinators: Insight into the Bioactivities, Selective Mechanism of Action and QSAR of Natural Coumarin Derivatives against Aphids. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:18359-18374. [PMID: 37965968 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c03493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
Plants employ abundant toxic secondary metabolites to withstand insect attack, while pollinators can tolerate some natural defensive compounds. Coumarins, as promising green alternatives to chemical insecticides, possess wide application prospects in the crop protection field. Herein, the bioactivities of 30 natural coumarin derivatives against Aphis gossypii were assessed and revealed that 6-methylcoumarin exhibited potent aphicidal activity against aphids but displayed no toxicity to honeybees. Additionally, using biochemical, bioinformatic, and molecular assays, we confirmed that the action mode of 6-methylcoumarin against aphids was by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Meanwhile, functional assays revealed that the difference in action site, which located in Lys585 in aphid AChE (equivalent to Val548 in honeybee AChE), was the principal reason for 6-methylcoumarin being toxic to aphids but safe to pollinators. This action site was further validated by mutagenesis data, which uncovered how 6-methylcoumarin was unique selective to the aphid over honeybee or mammalian AChE. Furthermore, a 2D-QSAR model was established, revealing that the central structural feature was H3m, which offers guidance for the future design of more potent coumarin compounds. This work provides a sustainable strategy to take advantage of coumarin analogues for pest management while protecting nontarget pollinators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Zhou
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Yufan Jian
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Qingyi Shao
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Fuyou Guo
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Miao Zhang
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Fenglin Wan
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Liang Yang
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Ying Liu
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Li Yang
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Yanhong Li
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Pinglong Yang
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Zongquan Li
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Shili Li
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
| | - Wei Ding
- Institute of Pesticide Science, College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, P.R. China
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3
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Daniela SV, Gabriela OM, Andrea PM. A state-of-the-art review and prospective therapeutic applications of prenyl flavonoids as chemosensitizers against antifungal multidrug resistance in Candida albicans. Curr Med Chem 2022; 29:4251-4281. [PMID: 35139777 DOI: 10.2174/0929867329666220209103538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) in the opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans is defined as non-susceptibility to at least one agent in two or more drug classes. This phenomenon has been increasingly reported since the rise in the incidence of fungal infections in immunocompromised patients at the end of the last century. After the discovery of efflux pump overexpression as a principal mechanism causing MDR in Candida strains, drug discovery targeting fungal efflux transporters has had a growing impact. Chemosensitization aims to enhance azole intracellular concentrations through combination therapy with transporter inhibitors. Consequently, the use of drug efflux inhibitors combined with the antifungal agent will sensitize the pathogen. As a result, the use of lower drug concentrations will reduce possible adverse effects on the host. Through an extensive revision of the literature, this review aims to provide an exhaustive and critical analysis of the studies carried out in the past two decades, regarding the chemosensitization strategy to cope with multidrug resistance in C. albicans. This work provides a deep analysis of the research about the inhibition of drug-efflux membrane transporters by prenylated flavonoids and the interactions of these phytocompounds with azole antifungals as an approach to chemosensitize multidrug-resistant C. albicans strains. We highlight the importance of prenylflavonoids and their particular chemical and pharmacological characteristics that make them excellent candidates with therapeutic potential as chemosensitizers. Finally, we propose the need for further research of prenyl flavonoids as inhibitors of drug-efflux mediated fungal resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santi V Daniela
- Farmacognosia, Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, Haya de la torre y Medina Allende, Edificio Ciencias II, X5000HUA Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV-CONICET), Ciudad Universitaria. X5000HUA Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Ortega María Gabriela
- Farmacognosia, Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, Haya de la torre y Medina Allende, Edificio Ciencias II, X5000HUA Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV-CONICET), Ciudad Universitaria. X5000HUA Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Peralta Mariana Andrea
- Farmacognosia, Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, Haya de la torre y Medina Allende, Edificio Ciencias II, X5000HUA Córdoba, Argentina
- Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV-CONICET), Ciudad Universitaria. X5000HUA Córdoba, Argentina
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4
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Banerjee A, Pata J, Sharma S, Monk BC, Falson P, Prasad R. Directed Mutational Strategies Reveal Drug Binding and Transport by the MDR Transporters of Candida albicans. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7020068. [PMID: 33498218 PMCID: PMC7908972 DOI: 10.3390/jof7020068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) transporters belonging to either the ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) or Major Facilitator Superfamily (MFS) groups are major determinants of clinical drug resistance in fungi. The overproduction of these proteins enables the extrusion of incoming drugs at rates that prevent lethal effects. The promiscuity of these proteins is intriguing because they export a wide range of structurally unrelated molecules. Research in the last two decades has used multiple approaches to dissect the molecular basis of the polyspecificity of multidrug transporters. With large numbers of drug transporters potentially involved in clinical drug resistance in pathogenic yeasts, this review focuses on the drug transporters of the important pathogen Candida albicans. This organism harbors many such proteins, several of which have been shown to actively export antifungal drugs. Of these, the ABC protein CaCdr1 and the MFS protein CaMdr1 are the two most prominent and have thus been subjected to intense site-directed mutagenesis and suppressor genetics-based analysis. Numerous results point to a common theme underlying the strategy of promiscuity adopted by both CaCdr1 and CaMdr1. This review summarizes the body of research that has provided insight into how multidrug transporters function and deliver their remarkable polyspecificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atanu Banerjee
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurgaon 122413, India; (A.B.); (S.S.)
| | - Jorgaq Pata
- Drug Resistance & Membrane Proteins Team, Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry Laboratory, Institut de Biologie et Chimie des Protéines, CNRS-Lyon 1 University UMR5086, 69367 Lyon, France;
| | - Suman Sharma
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurgaon 122413, India; (A.B.); (S.S.)
| | - Brian C. Monk
- Sir John Walsh Research Institute, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand;
| | - Pierre Falson
- Drug Resistance & Membrane Proteins Team, Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry Laboratory, Institut de Biologie et Chimie des Protéines, CNRS-Lyon 1 University UMR5086, 69367 Lyon, France;
- Correspondence: (P.F.); (R.P.)
| | - Rajendra Prasad
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Gurgaon 122413, India; (A.B.); (S.S.)
- Amity Institute of Integrative Sciences and Health, Amity University Haryana, Gurgaon 122413, India
- Correspondence: (P.F.); (R.P.)
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5
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Szepiński E, Martynow D, Szweda P, Milewska MJ, Milewski S. Voriconazole-Based Salts Are Active against Multidrug-Resistant Human Pathogenic Yeasts. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24203635. [PMID: 31600925 PMCID: PMC6832385 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24203635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Voriconazole (VOR) hydrochloride is unequivocally converted into VOR lactates and valinates upon reaction with silver salts of organic acids. This study found that the anticandidal in vitro activity of these compounds was comparable or slightly better than that of VOR. The Candida albicans clinical isolate overexpressing CaCDR1/CaCDR2 genes, highly resistant to VOR, was apparently more susceptible to VOR salts. On the other hand, the susceptibility of another C. albicans clinical isolate (demonstrating multidrug resistance due to the overexpression of CaMDR1) to VOR salts was comparable to that to VOR. Comparative studies on the influence of VOR and its salts on Rhodamine 6G efflux from susceptible and multidrug-resistant C. albicans cells revealed that VOR salts are poorer substrates for the CaCdr1p drug efflux pump than VOR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil Szepiński
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Dorota Martynow
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Piotr Szweda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Maria J Milewska
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Sławomir Milewski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza Str., 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland.
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6
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Moreno A, Banerjee A, Prasad R, Falson P. PDR-like ABC systems in pathogenic fungi. Res Microbiol 2019; 170:417-425. [PMID: 31562919 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2019.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
ABC transporters of the Pleiotropic Drug Resistance (PDR) family are the main actors of antifungal resistance in pathogenic fungi. While their involvement in clinical resistant strains has been proven, their transport mechanism remains unclear. Notably, one hallmark of PDR transporters is their asymmetry, with one canonical nucleotide-binding site capable of ATP hydrolysis while the other site is not. Recent publications reviewed here show that the so-called "deviant" site is of crucial importance for drug transport and is a step towards alleviating the mystery around the existence of non-catalytic binding sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Moreno
- Drug Resistance & Membrane Proteins Group, Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry Laboratory, CNRS-Lyon 1 University Research Lab n° 5086, Institut de Biologie et Chimie des Protéines, Lyon, France.
| | - Atanu Banerjee
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology and Amity Institute of Integrative Sciences and Health, Amity University Haryana, Gurgaon, India.
| | - Rajendra Prasad
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology and Amity Institute of Integrative Sciences and Health, Amity University Haryana, Gurgaon, India.
| | - Pierre Falson
- Drug Resistance & Membrane Proteins Group, Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry Laboratory, CNRS-Lyon 1 University Research Lab n° 5086, Institut de Biologie et Chimie des Protéines, Lyon, France.
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7
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Claus S, Jezierska S, Van Bogaert INA. Protein‐facilitated transport of hydrophobic molecules across the yeast plasma membrane. FEBS Lett 2019; 593:1508-1527. [DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Silke Claus
- Biochemical and Microbial Technology Universiteit Gent Belgium
| | | | - Inge N. A. Van Bogaert
- Lab. of Industrial Microbiology and Biocatalysis Faculty of Bioscience Engineering Ghent University Belgium
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8
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Prasad R, Balzi E, Banerjee A, Khandelwal NK. All about CDR transporters: Past, present, and future. Yeast 2018; 36:223-233. [DOI: 10.1002/yea.3356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rajendra Prasad
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology and Amity Institute of Integrative Sciences and HealthAmity University Haryana Gurgaon India
| | - Elisabetta Balzi
- Unité de Biochimie PhysiologiqueUniversité Catholique de Louvain Ottignies‐Louvain‐la‐Neuve Belgium
| | - Atanu Banerjee
- School of Life SciencesJawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi India
- School of Computational and Integrative SciencesJawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi India
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Eng T, Demling P, Herbert RA, Chen Y, Benites V, Martin J, Lipzen A, Baidoo EEK, Blank LM, Petzold CJ, Mukhopadhyay A. Restoration of biofuel production levels and increased tolerance under ionic liquid stress is enabled by a mutation in the essential Escherichia coli gene cydC. Microb Cell Fact 2018; 17:159. [PMID: 30296937 PMCID: PMC6174563 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-018-1006-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microbial production of chemicals from renewable carbon sources enables a sustainable route to many bioproducts. Sugar streams, such as those derived from biomass pretreated with ionic liquids (IL), provide efficiently derived and cost-competitive starting materials. A limitation to this approach is that residual ILs in the pretreated sugar source can be inhibitory to microbial growth and impair expression of the desired biosynthetic pathway. RESULTS We utilized laboratory evolution to select Escherichia coli strains capable of robust growth in the presence of the IL, 1-ethyl-3-methyl-imidizolium acetate ([EMIM]OAc). Whole genome sequencing of the evolved strain identified a point mutation in an essential gene, cydC, which confers tolerance to two different classes of ILs at concentrations that are otherwise growth inhibitory. This mutation, cydC-D86G, fully restores the specific production of the bio-jet fuel candidate D-limonene, as well as the biogasoline and platform chemical isopentenol, in growth medium containing ILs. Similar amino acids at this position in cydC, such as cydC-D86V, also confer tolerance to [EMIM]OAc. We show that this [EMIM]OAc tolerance phenotype of cydC-D86G strains is independent of its wild-type function in activating the cytochrome bd-I respiratory complex. Using shotgun proteomics, we characterized the underlying differential cellular responses altered in this mutant. While wild-type E. coli cannot produce detectable amounts of either product in the presence of ILs at levels expected to be residual in sugars from pretreated biomass, the engineered cydC-D86G strains produce over 200 mg/L D-limonene and 350 mg/L isopentenol, which are among the highest reported titers in the presence of [EMIM]OAc. CONCLUSIONS The optimized strains in this study produce high titers of two candidate biofuels and bioproducts under IL stress. Both sets of production strains surpass production titers from other IL tolerant mutants in the literature. Our application of laboratory evolution identified a gain of function mutation in an essential gene, which is unusual in comparison to other published IL tolerant mutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Eng
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Emeryville, CA 94608 USA
| | - Philipp Demling
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Robin A. Herbert
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Emeryville, CA 94608 USA
| | - Yan Chen
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Emeryville, CA 94608 USA
| | - Veronica Benites
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Emeryville, CA 94608 USA
| | - Joel Martin
- Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Walnut Creek, 94598 USA
| | - Anna Lipzen
- Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Walnut Creek, 94598 USA
| | - Edward E. K. Baidoo
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Emeryville, CA 94608 USA
| | - Lars M. Blank
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Christopher J. Petzold
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Emeryville, CA 94608 USA
| | - Aindrila Mukhopadhyay
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Emeryville, CA 94608 USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
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10
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Wagner M, Doehl K, Schmitt L. Transmitting the energy: interdomain cross-talk in Pdr5. Biol Chem 2017; 398:145-154. [PMID: 27543784 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2016-0247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
ABC (ATP-binding cassette) transporters are ubiquitous integral membrane proteins catalyzing the active export or import of structurally and functionally unrelated compounds. In humans, these proteins are clinically and economically important, as their dysfunction is responsible for a number of diseases. In the case of multidrug resistance (MDR) ABC exporters, they particularly confer resistance to a broad spectrum of toxic compounds, placing them in the focus of clinical research. However, ABC-mediated drug resistance is not only restricted to humans. In yeast for example, MDR is called pleiotropic drug resistance (PDR). Important and well-studied members of the PDR subfamily of ABC transporters are Pdr5 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and its homolog Cdr1 from Candida albicans. Mutational studies of these two transporters provided many insights into the complexity and conceivable mechanism of the interdomain cross-talk that transmits the energy gained from ATP hydrolysis to the substrate translocation process across the membrane. In this review, we summarize and discuss our current knowledge of the interdomain cross-talk as well as new results obtained for asymmetric ABC transporters and derive possible structural and functional implications for Pdr5.
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11
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In vitro prediction of gastrointestinal absorption of novel β-hydroxy-β-arylalkanoic acids using PAMPA technique. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017; 100:36-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Revised: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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12
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Nim S, Lobato LG, Moreno A, Chaptal V, Rawal MK, Falson P, Prasad R. Atomic modelling and systematic mutagenesis identify residues in multiple drug binding sites that are essential for drug resistance in the major Candida transporter Cdr1. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2016; 1858:2858-2870. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2016.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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13
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Rawal MK, Banerjee A, Shah AH, Khan MF, Sen S, Saxena AK, Monk BC, Cannon RD, Bhatnagar R, Mondal AK, Prasad R. Newly identified motifs in Candida albicans Cdr1 protein nucleotide binding domains are pleiotropic drug resistance subfamily-specific and functionally asymmetric. Sci Rep 2016; 6:27132. [PMID: 27251950 PMCID: PMC4890005 DOI: 10.1038/srep27132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
An analysis of Candida albicans ABC transporters identified conserved related α-helical sequence motifs immediately C-terminal of each Walker A sequence. Despite the occurrence of these motifs in ABC subfamilies of other yeasts and higher eukaryotes, their roles in protein function remained unexplored. In this study we have examined the functional significance of these motifs in the C. albicans PDR transporter Cdr1p. The motifs present in NBD1 and NBD2 were subjected to alanine scanning mutagenesis, deletion, or replacement of an entire motif. Systematic replacement of individual motif residues with alanine did not affect the function of Cdr1p but deletion of the M1-motif in NBD1 (M1-Del) resulted in Cdr1p being trapped within the endoplasmic reticulum. In contrast, deletion of the M2-motif in NBD2 (M2-Del) yielded a non-functional protein with normal plasma membrane localization. Replacement of the motif in M1-Del with six alanines (M1-Ala) significantly improved localization of the protein and partially restored function. Conversely, replacement of the motif in M2-Del with six alanines (M2-Ala) did not reverse the phenotype and susceptibility to antifungal substrates of Cdr1p was unchanged. Together, the M1 and M2 motifs contribute to the functional asymmetry of NBDs and are important for maturation of Cdr1p and ATP catalysis, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manpreet Kaur Rawal
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Atanu Banerjee
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Abdul Haseeb Shah
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Mohammad Firoz Khan
- School of Physical Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Sobhan Sen
- School of Physical Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Ajay Kumar Saxena
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Brian C Monk
- The Sir John Walsh Research Institute, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Richard D Cannon
- The Sir John Walsh Research Institute, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Rakesh Bhatnagar
- School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Alok Kumar Mondal
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Rajendra Prasad
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
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14
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K Redhu A, Shah AH, Prasad R. MFS transporters of Candida species and their role in clinical drug resistance. FEMS Yeast Res 2016; 16:fow043. [PMID: 27188885 DOI: 10.1093/femsyr/fow043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
ABC (ATP-binding cassette) and MFS (major facilitator superfamily) exporters, belonging to two different superfamilies, are one of the most prominent contributors of multidrug resistance (MDR) in yeast. While the role of ABC efflux pump proteins in the development of MDR is well documented, the MFS transporters which are also implicated in clinical drug resistance have not received due attention. The MFS superfamily is the largest known family of secondary active membrane carriers, and MFS exporters are capable of transporting a host of substrates ranging from small molecules, including organic and inorganic ions, to complex biomolecules, such as peptide and lipid moieties. A few of the members of the drug/H(+) antiporter family of the MFS superfamily function as multidrug transporters and employ downhill transport of protons to efflux their respective substrates. This review focuses on the recent developments in MFS of Candida and highlights their role in drug transport by using the example of the relatively well characterized promiscuous Mdr1 efflux pump of the pathogenic yeast C. albicans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Archana K Redhu
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Abdul H Shah
- Department of Bioresources, University of Kashmir, Srinagar 190006, India
| | - Rajendra Prasad
- Institute of Integrative Sciences and Health and Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Amity Education Valley, Gurgaon 122413, India
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15
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Knorre DA, Besedina E, Karavaeva IE, Smirnova EA, Markova OV, Severin FF. Alkylrhodamines enhance the toxicity of clotrimazole and benzalkonium chloride by interfering with yeast pleiotropic ABC-transporters. FEMS Yeast Res 2016; 16:fow030. [DOI: 10.1093/femsyr/fow030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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16
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Banerjee A, Khandelwal NK, Sanglard D, Prasad R. A New Endogenous Overexpression System of Multidrug Transporters of Candida albicans Suitable for Structural and Functional Studies. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:261. [PMID: 26973635 PMCID: PMC4776216 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungal pathogens have a robust array of multidrug transporters which aid in active expulsion of drugs and xenobiotics to help them evade toxic effects of drugs. Thus, these transporters impose a major impediment to effective chemotherapy. Although the Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain AD1-8u(-) has catered well to the need of an overexpression system to study drug transport by multidrug transporters of Candida albicans, artifacts associated with a heterologous system could not be excluded. To avoid the issue, we exploited a azole-resistant clinical isolate of C. albicans to develop a new system devoid of three major multidrug transporters (Cdr1p, Cdr2p, and Mdr1p) for the overexpression of multidrug transporters under native hyperactive CDR1 promoter due to gain of function (GOF) mutation in TAC1. The study deals with overexpression and functional characterization of representatives of two major classes of multidrug transporters, Cdr1p and Mdr1p, to prove the functionality of this newly developed endogenous expression system. Expression of native Cdr1 and Mdr1 protein in C. albicans cells was confirmed by confocal microscopy and immunodetection and resulted in increased resistance to the putative substrates as compared to control. The system was further validated by overexpressing a few key mutant variants of Cdr1p and Mdr1p. Together, our data confirms the utility of new endogenous overexpression system which is devoid of artifactual factors as most suited for functional characterization of multidrug transporter proteins of C. albicans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atanu Banerjee
- Membrane Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi, India
| | - Nitesh K Khandelwal
- Membrane Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi, India
| | - Dominique Sanglard
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Lausanne and University Hospital Center Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Rajendra Prasad
- Membrane Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru UniversityNew Delhi, India; Amity Institute of Integrative Sciences and Health and Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University HaryanaGurgaon, India
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17
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Candida Efflux ATPases and Antiporters in Clinical Drug Resistance. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 892:351-376. [PMID: 26721282 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-25304-6_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
An enhanced expression of genes encoding ATP binding cassette (ABC) and major facilitator superfamily (MFS) transport proteins are known to contribute to the development of tolerance to antifungals in pathogenic yeasts. For example, the azole resistant (AR) clinical isolates of the opportunistic human fungal pathogen Candida albicans show an overexpression of CDR1 and/or CaMDR1 belonging to ABC and MFS, superfamilies, respectively. The reduced accumulation (due to rapid efflux) of drugs in AR isolates confirms the role of efflux pump proteins in the development of drug tolerance. Considering the importance of major multidrug transporters, the focus of recent research has been to understand the structure and function of these proteins which could help to design inhibitors/modulators of these pump proteins. This chapter focuses on some aspects of the structure and function of yeast transporter proteins particularly in relation to MDR in Candida.
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18
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Abstract
In the light of multidrug resistance (MDR) among pathogenic microbes and cancer cells, membrane transporters have gained profound clinical significance. Chemotherapeutic failure, by far, has been attributed mainly to the robust and diverse array of these proteins, which are omnipresent in every stratum of the living world. Candida albicans, one of the major fungal pathogens affecting immunocompromised patients, also develops MDR during the course of chemotherapy. The pivotal membrane transporters that C. albicans has exploited as one of the strategies to develop MDR belongs to either the ATP binding cassette (ABC) or the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) class of proteins. The ABC transporter Candida drug resistance 1 protein (Cdr1p) is a major player among these transporters that enables the pathogen to outplay the battery of antifungals encountered by it. The promiscuous Cdr1 protein fulfills the quintessential need of a model to study molecular mechanisms of multidrug transporter regulation and structure-function analyses of asymmetric ABC transporters. In this review, we cover the highlights of two decades of research on Cdr1p that has provided a platform to study its structure-function relationships and regulatory circuitry for a better understanding of MDR not only in yeast but also in other organisms.
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19
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Szczepaniak J, Łukaszewicz M, Krasowska A. Detection of inhibitors of Candida albicans Cdr transporters using a diS-C3(3) fluorescence. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:176. [PMID: 25806026 PMCID: PMC4353304 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans is a major cause of opportunistic and life-threatening, systemic fungal infections. Hence new antifungal agents, as well as new methods to treat fungal infections, are still needed. The application of inhibitors of drug-efflux pumps may increase the susceptibility of C. albicans to drugs. We developed a new fluorescence method that allows the in vivo activity evaluation of compounds inhibiting of C. albicans transporters. We show that the potentiometric dye 3,3′-dipropylthiacarbocyanine iodide diS-C3(3) is pumped out by both Cdr1 and Cdr2 transporters. The fluorescence labeling with diS-C3(3) enables a real-time observation of the activity of C. albicans Cdr1 and Cdr2 transporters. We demonstrate that enniatin A and beauvericin show different specificities toward these transporters. Enniatin A inhibits diS-C3(3) efflux by Cdr1 while beauvericin inhibits both Cdr1p and Cdr2p.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Anna Krasowska
- Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wroclaw , Wroclaw, Poland
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20
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Ma S, Lv M, Deng F, Zhang X, Zhai H, Lv W. Predicting the ecotoxicity of ionic liquids towards Vibrio fischeri using genetic function approximation and least squares support vector machine. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2014; 283:591-598. [PMID: 25464300 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Ionic liquids (ILs) are widely used in industrial production for their unique physicochemical properties, and they are even regarded as green solvents. However, the recent study showed ILs might pose a potential risk to aquatic ecosystems. In the present work, the quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models, including genetic function approximation (GFA) and least squares support vector machine (LSSVM) were developed for predicting the ecotoxicity of ILs towards the marine bacterium Vibrio fischeri based on the descriptors calculated from cations and anions. Five descriptors were selected by GFA and used to develop the linear model. From the discussion of descriptors, the cation structure was the main factor to the toxicity, which mainly depended on the size, lipophilic, and 3D molecular structure of cations. In order to capture the nonlinear nature, the LSSVM model was also built for more accurately predicting the ecotoxicity. The GFA and LSSVM models were performed the rigorous internal and external validation, further verifying these models with excellent robustness and predictive ability. Therefore, both of models can be used for the prediction of the ecotoxicity of newly synthesized and untested ILs, and can provide reference information and theoretical guidance for designing and synthesizing safer and more eco-friendly ILs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuying Ma
- Department of Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Min Lv
- Department of Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Fangfang Deng
- Department of Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyun Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, People's Republic of China.
| | - Honglin Zhai
- Department of Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenjuan Lv
- Department of Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, People's Republic of China
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21
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Prasad R, Rawal MK. Efflux pump proteins in antifungal resistance. Front Pharmacol 2014; 5:202. [PMID: 25221515 PMCID: PMC4148622 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2014.00202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is now well-known that the enhanced expression of ATP binding cassette (ABC) and major facilitator superfamily (MFS) proteins contribute to the development of tolerance to antifungals in yeasts. For example, the azole resistant clinical isolates of the opportunistic human fungal pathogen Candida albicans show an overexpression of Cdr1p and/or CaMdr1p belonging to ABC and MFS superfamilies, respectively. Hence, azole resistant isolates display reduced accumulation of therapeutic drug due to its rapid extrusion and that facilitates its survival. Considering the importance of major antifungal transporters, the focus of recent research has been to understand the structure and function of these proteins to design inhibitors/modulators to block the pump protein activity so that the drug already in use could again sensitize resistant yeast cells. The review focuses on the structure and function of ABC and MFS transporters of Candida to highlight the recent advancement in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajendra Prasad
- Membrane Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi, India
| | - Manpreet K Rawal
- Membrane Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi, India
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22
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Juretic D, Kusic H, Papic A, Smidt M, Jezovita O, Peternel I, Bozic AL. Modeling of photodegradation kinetics of aromatic pollutants in water matrix. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2013.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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23
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Mechanisms of absorption and elimination of drugs administered by inhalation. Ther Deliv 2013; 4:1027-45. [PMID: 23919477 DOI: 10.4155/tde.13.67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary drug delivery is an effective route for local or systemic drug administration. However, compared with other routes of administration, there is a scarcity of information on how drugs are absorbed from the lung. The different cell composition lining the airways and alveoli makes this task extremely complicated. Lung cell lines and primary culture cells are useful in studying the absorption mechanisms. However, it is imperative that these cell cultures express essential features required to study these mechanisms such as intact tight junctions and transporters. In vivo, the drug has to face defensive physical and immunological barriers such as mucociliary clearance and alveolar macrophages. Knowledge of the physicochemical properties of the drug and aerosol formulation is required. All of these factors interact together leading to either successful drug deposition followed by absorption or drug elimination. These aspects concerning drug transport in the lung are addressed in this review.
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24
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Prasad R, Goffeau A. Yeast ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters Conferring Multidrug Resistance. Annu Rev Microbiol 2012; 66:39-63. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-092611-150111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rajendra Prasad
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India;
| | - Andre Goffeau
- Institut des Sciences de la Vie, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, 1349 Belgium;
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25
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Prasad R, Sharma M, Rawal MK. Functionally Relevant Residues of Cdr1p: A Multidrug ABC Transporter of Human Pathogenic Candida albicans. JOURNAL OF AMINO ACIDS 2011; 2011:531412. [PMID: 22312462 PMCID: PMC3268037 DOI: 10.4061/2011/531412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2010] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Reduced intracellular accumulation of drugs (due to rapid efflux) mediated by the efflux pump proteins belonging to ABC (ATP Binding Cassette) and MFS (Major Facilitators) superfamily is one of the most common strategies adopted by multidrug resistance (MDR) pathogenic yeasts. To combat MDR, it is essential to understand the structure and function of these transporters so that inhibitors/modulators to these can be developed. The sequence alignments of the ABC transporters reveal selective divergence within much conserved domains of Nucleotide-Binding Domains (NBDs) which is unique to all fungal transporters. Recently, the role of conserved but divergent residues of Candida Drug Resistance 1 (CDR1), an ABC drug transporter of human pathogenic Candida albicans, has been examined with regard to ATP binding and hydrolysis. In this paper, we focus on some of the recent advances on the relevance of divergent and conserved amino acids of CaCdr1p and also discuss as to how drug interacts with Trans Membrane Domains (TMDs) residues for its extrusion from MDR cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajendra Prasad
- Membrane Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
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26
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Overcoming the heterologous bias: An in vivo functional analysis of multidrug efflux transporter, CgCdr1p in matched pair clinical isolates of Candida glabrata. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011; 404:357-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.11.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2010] [Accepted: 11/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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