1
|
Antoszczak M, Müller S, Cañeque T, Colombeau L, Dusetti N, Santofimia-Castaño P, Gaillet C, Puisieux A, Iovanna JL, Rodriguez R. Iron-Sensitive Prodrugs That Trigger Active Ferroptosis in Drug-Tolerant Pancreatic Cancer Cells. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:11536-11545. [PMID: 35696539 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c03973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Persister cancer cells represent rare populations of cells resistant to therapy. Cancer cells can exploit epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity to adopt a drug-tolerant state that does not depend on genetic alterations. Small molecules that can interfere with cell plasticity or kill cells in a cell state-dependent manner are highly sought after. Salinomycin has been shown to kill cancer cells in the mesenchymal state by sequestering iron in lysosomes, taking advantage of the iron addiction of this cell state. Here, we report the chemo- and stereoselective synthesis of a series of structurally complex small molecule chimeras of salinomycin derivatives and the iron-reactive dihydroartemisinin. We show that these chimeras accumulate in lysosomes and can react with iron to release bioactive species, thereby inducing ferroptosis in drug-tolerant pancreatic cancer cells and biopsy-derived organoids of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. This work paves the way toward the development of new cancer medicines acting through active ferroptosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michał Antoszczak
- Department of Chemical Biology, Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Sebastian Müller
- Department of Chemical Biology, Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Tatiana Cañeque
- Department of Chemical Biology, Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Ludovic Colombeau
- Department of Chemical Biology, Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Nelson Dusetti
- CRCM, CNRS UMR 7258, INSERM U1068, Aix-Marseille Université and Institut Paoli-Calmettes, Parc Scientifique et Technologique de Luminy, 163 Avenue de Luminy, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Patricia Santofimia-Castaño
- CRCM, CNRS UMR 7258, INSERM U1068, Aix-Marseille Université and Institut Paoli-Calmettes, Parc Scientifique et Technologique de Luminy, 163 Avenue de Luminy, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Christine Gaillet
- Department of Chemical Biology, Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Alain Puisieux
- Department of Chemical Biology, Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Juan Lucio Iovanna
- CRCM, CNRS UMR 7258, INSERM U1068, Aix-Marseille Université and Institut Paoli-Calmettes, Parc Scientifique et Technologique de Luminy, 163 Avenue de Luminy, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Raphaël Rodriguez
- Department of Chemical Biology, Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université, 26 rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Li B, Wu J, Tang L, Lian X, Li Z, Duan W, Qin T, Zhao X, Hu Y, Zhang C, Li T, Hao J, Zhang W, Zhang J, Wu S. Synthesis and anti-tumor activity evaluation of salinomycin C20- O-alkyl/benzyl oxime derivatives. Org Biomol Chem 2022; 20:870-876. [PMID: 35006233 DOI: 10.1039/d1ob02292j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Seventeen C20-O-alkyl/benzyl oxime derivatives were synthesized by a concise and effective method. Most of these derivatives showed tens to several hundred nanomolar IC50 values against HT-29 colorectal, HGC-27 gastric and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, whose antiproliferative activity is 15-240 fold better than that of salinomycin. The C20-oxime etherified derivatives can coordinate potassium ions, and further adjust the cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations in HT-29 cells. The significant improvement of the potency should be attributed to the better ion binding and transport ability of the modified derivatives. In addition, the C20-O-alkyl/benzyl oxime derivatives showed much better selectivity indexes (SI) than salinomycin, indicating that they present lower neurotoxic risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bo Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Jun Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,National Stem Cell Resource Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Lei Tang
- Medical School of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650031, China.
| | - Xu Lian
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Zhongwen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,National Stem Cell Resource Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Wenfang Duan
- Medical School of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650031, China.
| | - Tong Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Xintong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Yuhua Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Chi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Tianlei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Jie Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,National Stem Cell Resource Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Wenxuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100050, China.
| | - Jihong Zhang
- Medical School of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650031, China.
| | - Song Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100050, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Antoszczak M, Müller S, Colombeau L, Cañeque T, Rodriguez R. Rapid Access to Ironomycin Derivatives by Click Chemistry. ACS ORGANIC & INORGANIC AU 2022; 2:222-228. [PMID: 35673682 PMCID: PMC9164236 DOI: 10.1021/acsorginorgau.1c00045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Salinomycin, a natural carboxylic polyether ionophore, shows a very interesting spectrum of biological activities, including selective toxicity toward cancer stem cells (CSCs). Recently, we have developed a C20-propargylamine derivative of salinomycin (ironomycin) that exhibits more potent activity in vivo and greater selectivity against breast CSCs compared to the parent natural product. Since ironomycin contains a terminal alkyne motif, it stands out as being an ideal candidate for further functionalization. Using copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC), we synthesized a series of 1,2,3-triazole analogs of ironomycin in good overall yields. The in vitro screening of these derivatives against a well-established model of breast CSCs (HMLER CD24low/CD44high) and its corresponding epithelial counterpart (HMLER CD24high/CD44low) revealed four new products characterized by higher potency and improved selectivity toward CSCs compared to the reference compound ironomycin. The present study highlights the therapeutic potential of a new class of semisynthetic salinomycin derivatives for targeting selectively the CSC niche and highlights ironomycin as a promising starting material for the development of new anticancer drug candidates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michał Antoszczak
- Department
of Chemical Biology Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université 26 rue d’Ulm, 75005 Paris, France,Department
of Medical Chemistry Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
| | - Sebastian Müller
- Department
of Chemical Biology Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université 26 rue d’Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Ludovic Colombeau
- Department
of Chemical Biology Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université 26 rue d’Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Tatiana Cañeque
- Department
of Chemical Biology Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université 26 rue d’Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Raphaël Rodriguez
- Department
of Chemical Biology Institut Curie, CNRS UMR 3666, INSERM U1143, PSL Université 26 rue d’Ulm, 75005 Paris, France,Phone: +33 648 482 191.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Qi D, Liu Y, Li J, Huang JH, Hu X, Wu E. Salinomycin as a potent anticancer stem cell agent: State of the art and future directions. Med Res Rev 2021; 42:1037-1063. [PMID: 34786735 PMCID: PMC9298915 DOI: 10.1002/med.21870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a small subpopulation of cells within a tumor that can both self‐renew and differentiate into other cell types forming the heterogeneous tumor bulk. Since CSCs are involved in all aspects of cancer development, including tumor initiation, cell proliferation, metastatic dissemination, therapy resistance, and recurrence, they have emerged as attractive targets for cancer treatment and management. Salinomycin, a widely used antibiotic in poultry farming, was identified by the Weinberg group as a potent anti‐CSC agent in 2009. As a polyether ionophore, salinomycin exerts broad‐spectrum activities, including the important anti‐CSC function. Studies on the mechanism of action of salinomycin against cancer have been continuously and rapidly published since then. Thus, it is imperative for us to update its literature of recent research findings in this area. We here summarize the notable work reported on salinomycin's anticancer activities, intracellular binding target(s), effects on tumor microenvironment, safety, derivatives, and tumor‐specific drug delivery; after that we also discuss the translational potential of salinomycin toward clinical application based on current multifaceted understandings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan Qi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, Texas, USA.,Neuroscience Institute, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, Texas, USA
| | - Yunyi Liu
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory, State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Biology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center for Molecular Engineering for Theranostics, Hunan University, Changsha, China
| | - Juan Li
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory, State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Biology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center for Molecular Engineering for Theranostics, Hunan University, Changsha, China
| | - Jason H Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, Texas, USA.,Neuroscience Institute, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, Texas, USA.,Department of Surgery, Texas A&M University College of Medicine, Temple, Texas, USA
| | - Xiaoxiao Hu
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory, State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Biology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center for Molecular Engineering for Theranostics, Hunan University, Changsha, China.,Shenzhen Research Institute, Hunan University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Erxi Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, Texas, USA.,Neuroscience Institute, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, Texas, USA.,Department of Surgery, Texas A&M University College of Medicine, Temple, Texas, USA.,LIVESTRONG Cancer Institutes and Department of Oncology, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas A&M University College of Pharmacy, College Station, Texas, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Czerwonka D, Urbaniak A, Sobczak S, Piña-Oviedo S, Chambers TC, Antoszczak M, Huczyński A. Synthesis and Anticancer Activity of Tertiary Amides of Salinomycin and Their C20-oxo Analogues. ChemMedChem 2019; 15:236-246. [PMID: 31702860 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201900593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The polyether ionophore salinomycin (SAL) has captured much interest because of its potent activity against cancer cells and cancer stem cells. Our previous studies have indicated that C1/C20 double-modification of SAL is a useful strategy to generate diverse agents with promising biological activity profiles. Thus, herein we describe the synthesis of a new class of SAL analogues that combine key modifications at the C1 and C20 positions. The activity of the obtained SAL derivatives was evaluated using primary acute lymphoblastic leukemia, human breast adenocarcinoma and normal mammary epithelial cells. One single- [N,N-dipropyl amide of salinomycin (5 a)] and two novel double-modified analogues [N,N-dipropyl amide of C20-oxosalinomycin (5 b) and piperazine amide of C20-oxosalinomycin (13 b)] were found to be more potent toward the MDA-MB-231 cell line than SAL or its C20-oxo analogue 2. When select analogues were tested against the NCI-60 human tumor cell line panel, 4 a [N,N-diethyl amide of salinomycin] showed particular activity toward the ovarian cancer cell line SK-OV-3. Additionally, both SAL and 2 were found to be potent ex vivo against human ER/PR+ , Her2- invasive mammary carcinoma, with 2 showing minimal toxicity toward normal epithelial cells. The present findings highlight the therapeutic potential of SAL derivatives for select targeting of different cancer types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dominika Czerwonka
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614, Poznań, Poland
| | - Alicja Urbaniak
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - Szymon Sobczak
- Department of Materials Chemistry Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614, Poznań, Poland
| | - Sergio Piña-Oviedo
- Department of Pathology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - Timothy C Chambers
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - Michał Antoszczak
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614, Poznań, Poland
| | - Adam Huczyński
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614, Poznań, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Antoszczak M, Huczyński A. Salinomycin and its derivatives - A new class of multiple-targeted "magic bullets". Eur J Med Chem 2019; 176:208-227. [PMID: 31103901 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The history of drug development clearly shows the scale of painstaking effort leading to a finished product - a highly biologically active agent that would be at the same time no or little toxic to human organism. Moreover, the aim of modern drug discovery can move from "one-molecule one-target" concept to more promising "one-molecule multiple-targets" one, particularly in the context of effective fight against cancer and other complex diseases. Gratifyingly, natural compounds are excellent source of potential drug leads. One of such promising naturally-occurring drug candidates is a polyether ionophore - salinomycin (SAL). This compound should be identified as multi-target agent for two reasons. Firstly, SAL combines a broad spectrum of bioactivity, including antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antiparasitic and anticancer activity, with high selectivity of action, proving its significant therapeutic potential. Secondly, the multimodal mechanism of action of SAL has been shown to be related to its interactions with multiple molecular targets and signalling pathways that are synergistic for achieving a therapeutic anticancer effect. On the other hand, according to the Paul Ehrlich's "magic bullet" concept, invariably inspiring the scientists working on design of novel target-selective molecules, a very interesting direction of research is rational chemical modification of SAL. Importantly, many of SAL derivatives have been found to be more promising as chemotherapeutics than the native structure. This concise review article is focused both on the possible role of SAL and its selected analogues in future antimicrobial and/or cancer therapy, and on the potential use of SAL as a new class of multiple-targeted "magic bullet" because of its multimodal mechanism of action.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michał Antoszczak
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89b, 61‒614, Poznań, Poland
| | - Adam Huczyński
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89b, 61‒614, Poznań, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
A comprehensive review of salinomycin derivatives as potent anticancer and anti-CSCs agents. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 166:48-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
|
8
|
Kaushik V, Yakisich JS, Kumar A, Azad N, Iyer AKV. Ionophores: Potential Use as Anticancer Drugs and Chemosensitizers. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10100360. [PMID: 30262730 PMCID: PMC6211070 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10100360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Ion homeostasis is extremely important for the survival of both normal as well as neoplastic cells. The altered ion homeostasis found in cancer cells prompted the investigation of several ionophores as potential anticancer agents. Few ionophores, such as Salinomycin, Nigericin and Obatoclax, have demonstrated potent anticancer activities against cancer stem-like cells that are considered highly resistant to chemotherapy and responsible for tumor relapse. The preclinical success of these compounds in in vitro and in vivo models have not been translated into clinical trials. At present, phase I/II clinical trials demonstrated limited benefit of Obatoclax alone or in combination with other anticancer drugs. However, future development in targeted drug delivery may be useful to improve the efficacy of these compounds. Alternatively, these compounds may be used as leading molecules for the development of less toxic derivatives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Kaushik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Hampton University, Hampton, VA 23668, USA.
| | - Juan Sebastian Yakisich
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Hampton University, Hampton, VA 23668, USA.
| | - Anil Kumar
- Great Plains Health, North Platte, NE 69101, USA.
| | - Neelam Azad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Hampton University, Hampton, VA 23668, USA.
| | - Anand K V Iyer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Hampton University, Hampton, VA 23668, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Versini A, Saier L, Sindikubwabo F, Müller S, Cañeque T, Rodriguez R. Chemical biology of salinomycin. Tetrahedron 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2018.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
10
|
Urbaniak A, Delgado M, Antoszczak M, Huczyński A, Chambers TC. Salinomycin derivatives exhibit activity against primary acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) cells in vitro. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 99:384-390. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.01.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
|
11
|
Synthesis and biological evaluation of 20-epi-amino-20-deoxysalinomycin derivatives. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 148:279-290. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|