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Liu Y, Luo Z. Repurposing Anticancer Drugs Targeting the MAPK/ERK Signaling Pathway for the Treatment of Respiratory Virus Infections. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6946. [PMID: 39000055 PMCID: PMC11240997 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25136946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2024] [Revised: 06/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Respiratory virus infections remain a significant challenge to human health and the social economy. The symptoms range from mild rhinitis and nasal congestion to severe lower respiratory tract dysfunction and even mortality. The efficacy of therapeutic drugs targeting respiratory viruses varies, depending upon infection time and the drug resistance engendered by a high frequency of viral genome mutations, necessitating the development of new strategies. The MAPK/ERK pathway that was well delineated in the 1980s represents a classical signaling cascade, essential for cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation. Since this pathway is constitutively activated in many cancers by oncogenes, several drugs inhibiting Raf/MEK/ERK have been developed and currently used in anticancer treatment. Two decades ago, it was reported that viruses such as HIV and influenza viruses could exploit the host cellular MAPK/ERK pathway for their replication. Thus, it would be feasible to repurpose this category of the pathway inhibitors for the treatment of respiratory viral infections. The advantage is that the host genes are not easy to mutate such that the drug resistance rarely occurs during short-period treatment of viruses. Therefore, in this review we will summarize the research progress on the role of the MAPK/ERK pathway in respiratory virus amplification and discuss the potential of the pathway inhibitors (MEK inhibitors) in the treatment of respiratory viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zhijun Luo
- Medical Department, Queen Mary School, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China;
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2
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Zure D, Sung MH, Rahim A, Kuo HW. In Silico Assessment of Chemical Disinfectants on Surface Proteins Unveiled Dissimilarity in Antiviral Efficacy and Suitability towards Pathogenic Viruses. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6009. [PMID: 38892197 PMCID: PMC11172749 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Viral pathogens pose a substantial threat to public health and necessitate the development of effective remediation and antiviral strategies. This short communication aimed to investigate the antiviral efficacy of disinfectants on the surface proteins of human pathogenic viruses. Using in silico modeling, the ligand-binding energies (LBEs) of selected disinfectants were predicted and combined with their environmental impacts and costs through an eco-pharmaco-economic analysis (EPEA). The results revealed that the binding affinities of chemical disinfectants to viral proteins varied significantly (p < 0.005). Rutin demonstrated promising broad-spectrum antiviral efficacy with an LBE of -8.49 ± 0.92 kcal/mol across all tested proteins. Additionally, rutin showed a superior eco-pharmaco-economic profile compared to the other chemicals, effectively balancing high antiviral effectiveness, moderate environmental impact, and affordability. These findings highlight rutin as a key phytochemical for use in remediating viral contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hsion-Wen Kuo
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tunghai University, Taichung 407224, Taiwan; (D.Z.); (M.-H.S.); (A.R.)
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3
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Ma Y, Wang T, Cheng L, Ma X, Li R, Zhang M, Chen J, Zhao P. Design, concise synthesis and evaluation of novel amide-based combretastatin A-4 analogues as potent tubulin inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2024; 108:129816. [PMID: 38806101 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2024.129816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
As our ongoing work, a novel series of the amide-based CA-4 analogues were successfully designed, synthesized, and explored for their biological evaluation. Among these compounds, 7d and 8a illustrated most potent antiproliferative activity toward A549, HeLa, HCT116, and HT-29 cell lines. Most importantly, these two compounds didn't display noticeable cytotoxic activity on the non-tumoural cell line HEK-293. Further mechanism studies revealed that analogue 8a was identified as a novel tubulin polymerization inhibitor with an IC50 value of 6.90 μM, which is comparable with CA-4. The subsequent investigations unveiled that analogue 8a not only effectively caused cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase but also induced apoptosis in A549 cells via a concentration-dependent manner. The molecular docking revealed that 8a could occupy well the colchicine-binding site of tubulin. Collectively, these findings indicate that amide-based CA-4 scaffold could be worthy of further evaluation for development of novel tubulin inhibitors with improved safety profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufeng Ma
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, PR China
| | - Ting Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, PR China
| | - Li Cheng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, PR China
| | - Xuanxuan Ma
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, PR China
| | - Rou Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, PR China
| | - Mengting Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, PR China
| | - Jingkao Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, PR China.
| | - Peiliang Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, PR China.
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4
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Trischitta P, Tamburello MP, Venuti A, Pennisi R. Pseudovirus-Based Systems for Screening Natural Antiviral Agents: A Comprehensive Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5188. [PMID: 38791226 PMCID: PMC11121416 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25105188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Since the outbreak of COVID-19, researchers have been working tirelessly to discover effective ways to combat coronavirus infection. The use of computational drug repurposing methods and molecular docking has been instrumental in identifying compounds that have the potential to disrupt the binding between the spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 and human ACE2 (hACE2). Moreover, the pseudovirus approach has emerged as a robust technique for investigating the mechanism of virus attachment to cellular receptors and for screening targeted small molecule drugs. Pseudoviruses are viral particles containing envelope proteins, which mediate the virus's entry with the same efficiency as that of live viruses but lacking pathogenic genes. Therefore, they represent a safe alternative to screen potential drugs inhibiting viral entry, especially for highly pathogenic enveloped viruses. In this review, we have compiled a list of antiviral plant extracts and natural products that have been extensively studied against enveloped emerging and re-emerging viruses by pseudovirus technology. The review is organized into three parts: (1) construction of pseudoviruses based on different packaging systems and applications; (2) knowledge of emerging and re-emerging viruses; (3) natural products active against pseudovirus-mediated entry. One of the most crucial stages in the life cycle of a virus is its penetration into host cells. Therefore, the discovery of viral entry inhibitors represents a promising therapeutic option in fighting against emerging viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Trischitta
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Science, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy; (P.T.); (M.P.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, Biology, and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, Via Elce di Sotto 8, 06123 Perugia, Italy
| | - Maria Pia Tamburello
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Science, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy; (P.T.); (M.P.T.)
| | - Assunta Venuti
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), World Health Organization, 69366 Lyon, CEDEX 07, France;
| | - Rosamaria Pennisi
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Science, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy; (P.T.); (M.P.T.)
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5
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Parameshwaraiah SM, Shivakumar R, Xi Z, Siddappa TP, Ravish A, Mohan A, Poonacha LK, Uppar PM, Basappa S, Dukanya D, Gaonkar SL, Kemparaju K, Lobie PE, Pandey V, Basappa B. Development of Novel Indazolyl-Acyl Hydrazones as Antioxidant and Anticancer Agents that Target VEGFR-2 in Human Breast Cancer Cells. Chem Biodivers 2024; 21:e202301950. [PMID: 38258537 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202301950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
The increased expression of VEGFR-2 in a variety of cancer cells promotes a cascade of cellular responses that improve cell survival, growth, and proliferation. Heterocycles are common structural elements in medicinal chemistry and commercially available medications that target several biological pathways and induce cell death in cancer cells. Herein, the evaluation of indazolyl-acyl hydrazones as antioxidant and anticancer agents is reported. Compounds 4e and 4j showed inhibitory activity in free radical scavenging assays (DPPH and FRPA). The titled compounds were employed in cell viability studies using MCF-7 cells, and it was observed that compounds 4f and 4j exhibited IC50 values 15.83 μM and 5.72 μM, respectively. In silico docking revealed the favorable binding energies of -7.30 kcal/mol and -8.04 kcal/mol for these compounds towards Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-2 (VEGFR-2), respectively. In conclusion, compounds with antioxidant activity and that target VEGFR-2 in breast cancer cells are reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sindhu M Parameshwaraiah
- University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Studies in Organic Chemistry, Mysore, 570006, India
| | - Rashmi Shivakumar
- University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Studies in Organic Chemistry, Mysore, 570006, India
| | - Zhang Xi
- Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Tejaswini P Siddappa
- University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Studies in Organic Chemistry, Mysore, 570006, India
| | - Akshay Ravish
- University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Studies in Organic Chemistry, Mysore, 570006, India
| | - Arunkumar Mohan
- University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Studies in Organic Chemistry, Mysore, 570006, India
| | - Lisha K Poonacha
- University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Studies in Organic Chemistry, Mysore, 570006, India
| | - Pradeep M Uppar
- University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Studies in Organic Chemistry, Mysore, 570006, India
| | - Shreeja Basappa
- Department of Chemistry, BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Jawahar Nagar, Medchal, 500078, India
| | - Dukanya Dukanya
- University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Studies in Organic Chemistry, Mysore, 570006, India
| | - Santhosh L Gaonkar
- Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Department of Chemistry, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, 576104, India
| | - Kempaiah Kemparaju
- University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Department of Studies in Biochemistry, Mysore, 570006, India
| | - Peter E Lobie
- Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, 518055, China
- Tsinghua University, Tsinghua Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China
- Tsinghua University, Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Vijay Pandey
- Tsinghua University, Tsinghua Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China
- Tsinghua University, Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Basappa Basappa
- University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Studies in Organic Chemistry, Mysore, 570006, India
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6
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Pacetti M, Pismataro MC, Felicetti T, Giammarino F, Bonomini A, Tiecco M, Bertagnin C, Barreca ML, Germani R, Cecchetti V, Vicenti I, Tabarrini O, Zazzi M, Loregian A, Massari S. Switching the three-component Biginelli-like reaction conditions for the regioselective synthesis of new 2-amino[1,2,4]triazolo[1,5- a]pyrimidines. Org Biomol Chem 2024; 22:767-783. [PMID: 38167738 DOI: 10.1039/d3ob01861j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Among the eight different triazolopyrimidine isomers existing in nature, 1,2,4-triazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine (TZP) is one of the most studied and used isomers in medicinal chemistry. For some years, our group has been involved in developing regioselective one-pot procedures for the synthesis of 2-amino-7-aryl-5-methyl- and 2-amino-5-aryl-7-methyl-TZPs of interest in the preparation of antiviral agents. In this work, taking advantage of a Biginelli-like multicomponent reaction (MCR), we report the identification of finely tunable conditions to regioselectively synthesize C-6 ester-substituted amino-TZP analogues, both in dihydro and oxidized forms. Indeed, the use of mild acidic conditions is strongly directed toward the regioselective synthesis of 5-aryl-7-methyl C-6-substituted TZP analogues, while the use of neutral ionic liquids shifted the regioselectivity towards 7-aryl-5-methyl derivatives. In addition, the novel synthesized scaffolds were functionalized at the C-2 position and evaluated for their antiviral activity against RNA viruses (influenza virus, flaviviruses, and SARS-CoV-2). Compounds 25 and 26 emerged as promising anti-flavivirus agents, showing activity in the low micromolar range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Pacetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | | | - Tommaso Felicetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Federica Giammarino
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Anna Bonomini
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua, 35121 Padua, Italy
| | - Matteo Tiecco
- Chemistry Interdisciplinary Project (ChIP), School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino, 62032 Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Chiara Bertagnin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua, 35121 Padua, Italy
| | | | - Raimondo Germani
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy
| | - Violetta Cecchetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Ilaria Vicenti
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Oriana Tabarrini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Maurizio Zazzi
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Arianna Loregian
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padua, 35121 Padua, Italy
| | - Serena Massari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
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7
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Moskalik MY. Monofluoromethylation of N-Heterocyclic Compounds. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17593. [PMID: 38139426 PMCID: PMC10744182 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242417593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The review focuses on recent advances in the methodologies for the formation or introduction of the CH2F moiety in N-heterocyclic substrates over the past 5 years. The monofluoromethyl group is one of the most versatile fluorinated groups used to modify the properties of molecules in synthetic medical chemistry. The review summarizes two strategies for the monofluoromethylation of N-containing heterocycles: direct monofluoromethylation with simple XCH2F sources (for example, ICH2F) and the assembly of N-heterocyclic structures from CH2F-containing substrates. The review describes the monofluoromethylation of pharmaceutically important three-, five- and six-membered N-heterocycles: pyrrolidines, pyrroles, indoles, imidazoles, triazoles, benzothiazoles, carbazoles, indazoles, pyrazoles, oxazoles, piperidines, morpholines, pyridines, quinolines and pyridazines. Assembling of 6-fluoromethylphenanthridine, 5-fluoromethyl-2-oxazolines, C5-monofluorinated isoxazoline N-oxides, and α-fluoromethyl-α-trifluoromethylaziridines is also shown. Fluoriodo-, fluorchloro- and fluorbromomethane, FCH2SO2Cl, monofluoromethyl(aryl)sulfoniummethylides, monofluoromethyl sulfides, (fluoromethyl)triphenylphosphonium iodide and 2-fluoroacetic acid are the main fluoromethylating reagents in recent works. The replacement of atoms and entire functional groups with a fluorine atom(s) leads to a change and often improvement in activity, chemical or biostability, and pharmacokinetic properties. The monofluoromethyl group is a bioisoster of -CH3, -CH2OH, -CH2NH2, -CH2CH3, -CH2NO2 and -CH2SH moieties. Bioisosteric replacement with the CH2F group is both an interesting task for organic synthesis and a pathway to modify drugs, agrochemicals and useful intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail Yu Moskalik
- A.E. Favorsky Irkutsk Institute of Chemistry, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1 Favorsky Street, 664033 Irkutsk, Russia
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8
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Chen GQ, Guo HY, Quan ZS, Shen QK, Li X, Luan T. Natural Products-Pyrazine Hybrids: A Review of Developments in Medicinal Chemistry. Molecules 2023; 28:7440. [PMID: 37959859 PMCID: PMC10649211 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28217440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyrazine is a six-membered heterocyclic ring containing nitrogen, and many of its derivatives are biologically active compounds. References have been downloaded through Web of Science, PubMed, Science Direct, and SciFinder Scholar. The structure, biological activity, and mechanism of natural product derivatives containing pyrazine fragments reported from 2000 to September 2023 were reviewed. Publications reporting only the chemistry of pyrazine derivatives are beyond the scope of this review and have not been included. The results of research work show that pyrazine-modified natural product derivatives have a wide range of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antibacterial, antiparasitic, and antioxidant activities. Many of these derivatives exhibit stronger pharmacodynamic activity and less toxicity than their parent compounds. This review has a certain reference value for the development of heterocyclic compounds, especially pyrazine natural product derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Qing Chen
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China; (G.-Q.C.); (H.-Y.G.); (Z.-S.Q.); (Q.-K.S.)
| | - Hong-Yan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China; (G.-Q.C.); (H.-Y.G.); (Z.-S.Q.); (Q.-K.S.)
| | - Zhe-Shan Quan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China; (G.-Q.C.); (H.-Y.G.); (Z.-S.Q.); (Q.-K.S.)
| | - Qing-Kun Shen
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China; (G.-Q.C.); (H.-Y.G.); (Z.-S.Q.); (Q.-K.S.)
| | - Xiaoting Li
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China; (G.-Q.C.); (H.-Y.G.); (Z.-S.Q.); (Q.-K.S.)
| | - Tian Luan
- Department of Pharmacy, Shenyang Medical College, Shenyang 110034, China
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9
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Rusu A, Moga IM, Uncu L, Hancu G. The Role of Five-Membered Heterocycles in the Molecular Structure of Antibacterial Drugs Used in Therapy. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2554. [PMID: 38004534 PMCID: PMC10675556 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15112554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Five-membered heterocycles are essential structural components in various antibacterial drugs; the physicochemical properties of a five-membered heterocycle can play a crucial role in determining the biological activity of an antibacterial drug. These properties can affect the drug's activity spectrum, potency, and pharmacokinetic and toxicological properties. Using scientific databases, we identified and discussed the antibacterials used in therapy, containing five-membered heterocycles in their molecular structure. The identified five-membered heterocycles used in antibacterial design contain one to four heteroatoms (nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur). Antibacterials containing five-membered heterocycles were discussed, highlighting the biological properties imprinted by the targeted heterocycle. In some antibacterials, heterocycles with five atoms are pharmacophores responsible for their specific antibacterial activity. As pharmacophores, these heterocycles help design new medicinal molecules, improving their potency and selectivity and comprehending the structure-activity relationship of antibiotics. Unfortunately, particular heterocycles can also affect the drug's potential toxicity. The review extensively presents the most successful five-atom heterocycles used to design antibacterial essential medicines. Understanding and optimizing the intrinsic characteristics of a five-membered heterocycle can help the development of antibacterial drugs with improved activity, pharmacokinetic profile, and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aura Rusu
- Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania; (I.-M.M.); (G.H.)
| | - Ioana-Maria Moga
- Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania; (I.-M.M.); (G.H.)
| | - Livia Uncu
- Scientific Center for Drug Research, “Nicolae Testemitanu” State University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 8 Bd. Stefan Cel Mare si Sfant 165, MD-2004 Chisinau, Moldova;
| | - Gabriel Hancu
- Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania; (I.-M.M.); (G.H.)
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10
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Anichina K, Mavrova A, Vuchev D, Popova-Daskalova G, Bassi G, Rossi A, Montesi M, Panseri S, Fratev F, Naydenova E. Benzimidazoles Containing Piperazine Skeleton at C-2 Position as Promising Tubulin Modulators with Anthelmintic and Antineoplastic Activity. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1518. [PMID: 38004384 PMCID: PMC10675210 DOI: 10.3390/ph16111518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Benzimidazole anthelmintic drugs hold promise for repurposing as cancer treatments due to their interference with tubulin polymerization and depolymerization, manifesting anticancer properties. We explored the potential of benzimidazole compounds with a piperazine fragment at C-2 as tubulin-targeting agents. In particular, we assessed their anthelmintic activity against isolated Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae and their effects on glioblastoma (U-87 MG) and breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) cell lines. Compound 7c demonstrated exceptional anthelmintic efficacy, achieving a 92.7% reduction in parasite activity at 100 μg/mL after 48 hours. In vitro cytotoxicity analysis of MDA-MB 231 and U87 MG cell lines showed that derivatives 7b, 7d, and 7c displayed lower IC50 values compared to albendazole (ABZ), the control. These piperazine benzimidazoles effectively reduced cell migration in both cell lines, with compound 7c exhibiting the most significant reduction, making it a promising candidate for further study. The binding mode of the most promising compound 7c, was determined using the induced fit docking-molecular dynamics (IFD-MD) approach. Regular docking and IFD were also employed for comparison. The IFD-MD analysis revealed that 7c binds to tubulin in a unique binding cavity near that of ABZ, but the benzimidazole ring was fitted much deeper into the binding pocket. Finally, the absolute free energy of perturbation technique was applied to evaluate the 7c binding affinity, further confirming the observed binding mode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kameliya Anichina
- Department of Organic Synthesis, University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, 8 Kliment Ohridski Blvd., 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria;
| | - Anelia Mavrova
- Department of Organic Synthesis, University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, 8 Kliment Ohridski Blvd., 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria;
| | - Dimitar Vuchev
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Medical University, 15A Vasil Aprilov Blvd., 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria; (D.V.); (G.P.-D.)
| | - Galya Popova-Daskalova
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Medical University, 15A Vasil Aprilov Blvd., 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria; (D.V.); (G.P.-D.)
| | - Giada Bassi
- Institute of Science, Technology and Sustainability for Ceramics, National Research Council of Italy, Via Granarolo 64, 48018 Faenza, Italy; (G.B.); (A.R.); (M.M.); (S.P.)
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University of G. D’Annunzio, Via Luigi Polacchi, 11, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Arianna Rossi
- Institute of Science, Technology and Sustainability for Ceramics, National Research Council of Italy, Via Granarolo 64, 48018 Faenza, Italy; (G.B.); (A.R.); (M.M.); (S.P.)
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres, 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Monica Montesi
- Institute of Science, Technology and Sustainability for Ceramics, National Research Council of Italy, Via Granarolo 64, 48018 Faenza, Italy; (G.B.); (A.R.); (M.M.); (S.P.)
| | - Silvia Panseri
- Institute of Science, Technology and Sustainability for Ceramics, National Research Council of Italy, Via Granarolo 64, 48018 Faenza, Italy; (G.B.); (A.R.); (M.M.); (S.P.)
| | - Filip Fratev
- Micar Innovation (Micar 21) Ltd., 34B Persenk Str., 1407 Sofia, Bulgaria;
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at El Paso, 1101 N Campbell St., El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Emilia Naydenova
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, 8 Kliment Ohridski Blvd., 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria;
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11
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Lahmadi G, Horchani M, Dbeibia A, Mahdhi A, Romdhane A, Lawson AM, Daïch A, Harrath AH, Ben Jannet H, Othman M. Novel Oleanolic Acid-Phtalimidines Tethered 1,2,3 Triazole Hybrids as Promising Antibacterial Agents: Design, Synthesis, In Vitro Experiments and In Silico Docking Studies. Molecules 2023; 28:4655. [PMID: 37375209 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28124655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
As part of the valorization of agricultural waste into bioactive compounds, a series of structurally novel oleanolic acid ((3β-hydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid, OA-1)-phtalimidines (isoindolinones) conjugates 18a-u bearing 1,2,3-triazole moieties were designed and synthesized by treating an azide 4 previously prepared from OA-1 isolated from olive pomace (Olea europaea L.) with a wide range of propargylated phtalimidines using the Cu(I)-catalyzed click chemistry approach. OA-1 and its newly prepared analogues, 18a-u, were screened in vitro for their antibacterial activity against two Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes, and two Gram-negative bacteria, Salmonella thyphimurium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Attractive results were obtained, notably against L. monocytogenes. Compounds 18d, 18g, and 18h exhibited the highest antibacterial activity when compared with OA-1 and other compounds in the series against tested pathogenic bacterial strains. A molecular docking study was performed to explore the binding mode of the most active derivatives into the active site of the ABC substrate-binding protein Lmo0181 from L. monocytogenes. Results showed the importance of both hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions with the target protein and are in favor of the experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghofrane Lahmadi
- Normandie University, URCOM, UNILEHAVRE, FR3021, UR 3221, 25 Rue Philippe Lebon, BP 540, F-76058 Le Havre, France
- Laboratory of Heterocyclic Chemistry, LR11ES39, Faculty of Science of Monastir, University of Monastir, Avenue of Environment, Monastir 5019, Tunisia
| | - Mabrouk Horchani
- Laboratory of Heterocyclic Chemistry, LR11ES39, Faculty of Science of Monastir, University of Monastir, Avenue of Environment, Monastir 5019, Tunisia
| | - Amal Dbeibia
- Laboratory of Analysis, Treatment and Valorization of Pollutants of the Environment and Products, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Monastir, Monastir 5000, Tunisia
| | - Abdelkarim Mahdhi
- Laboratory of Analysis, Treatment and Valorization of Pollutants of the Environment and Products, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Monastir, Monastir 5000, Tunisia
| | - Anis Romdhane
- Laboratory of Heterocyclic Chemistry, LR11ES39, Faculty of Science of Monastir, University of Monastir, Avenue of Environment, Monastir 5019, Tunisia
| | - Ata Martin Lawson
- Normandie University, URCOM, UNILEHAVRE, FR3021, UR 3221, 25 Rue Philippe Lebon, BP 540, F-76058 Le Havre, France
| | - Adam Daïch
- Normandie University, URCOM, UNILEHAVRE, FR3021, UR 3221, 25 Rue Philippe Lebon, BP 540, F-76058 Le Havre, France
| | - Abdel Halim Harrath
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hichem Ben Jannet
- Laboratory of Heterocyclic Chemistry, LR11ES39, Faculty of Science of Monastir, University of Monastir, Avenue of Environment, Monastir 5019, Tunisia
| | - Mohamed Othman
- Normandie University, URCOM, UNILEHAVRE, FR3021, UR 3221, 25 Rue Philippe Lebon, BP 540, F-76058 Le Havre, France
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12
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Ji T, Jian X, Chen L, Zeng W, Huo X, Li M, Chen P, Zhang Y, You W, Zhao P. Discovery of novel 6-p-tolyl-3-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)-7H-[1,2,4]triazolo[3,4-b][1,3,4]thiadiazine derivative as a potent tubulin inhibitor with promising in vivo antitumor activity. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 256:115437. [PMID: 37172475 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Building on our prior research, a novel series of trimethoxyphenoxymethyl- and trimethoxybenzyl-substituted triazolothiadiazine compounds has been designed and achieved successfully via a direct ring-closing strategy. Initial biological evaluation illustrated that the most active derivative B5 exhibited significant cell growth inhibitory activity toward HeLa, HT-29, and A549 giving the IC50 values of 0.046, 0.57, and 0.96 μM, respectively, which are greater or similar with CA-4. The mechanism study revealed that B5 caused the G2/M phase arrest, induced cell apoptosis in HeLa cells in a concentration-dependent manner, and also showed potent tubulin polymerization inhibitory effect. Meanwhile, B5 exerted significant antivascular activity in the wound-healing and tube formation assays. Most importantly, B5 remarkably inhibited tumor growth without obvious signs of toxicity in A549-xenograft mice model. These observations indicate that 6-p-tolyl-3-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)-7H-[1,2,4]triazolo[3,4-b][1,3,4]thiadiazine might be considered as the potential lead compound to develop highly efficient anticancer agents with potent selectivity over normal human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tangyang Ji
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, PR China
| | - Xieer Jian
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, PR China
| | - Lin Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, PR China
| | - Wenbin Zeng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, PR China
| | - Xiansen Huo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, PR China
| | - Mingxia Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, PR China
| | - Peng Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, PR China
| | - Yuqi Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, PR China
| | - Wenwei You
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, PR China
| | - Peiliang Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, PR China.
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13
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Fernández-Sánchez SY, Cerón-Carrasco JP, Risco C, Fernández de Castro I. Antiviral Activity of Acetylsalicylic Acid against Bunyamwera Virus in Cell Culture. Viruses 2023; 15:v15040948. [PMID: 37112928 PMCID: PMC10141918 DOI: 10.3390/v15040948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The Bunyavirales order is a large group of RNA viruses that includes important pathogens for humans, animals and plants. With high-throughput screening of clinically tested compounds we have looked for potential inhibitors of the endonuclease domain of a bunyavirus RNA polymerase. From a list of fifteen top candidates, five compounds were selected and their antiviral properties studied with Bunyamwera virus (BUNV), a prototypic bunyavirus widely used for studies about the biology of this group of viruses and to test antivirals. Four compounds (silibinin A, myricetin, L-phenylalanine and p-aminohippuric acid) showed no antiviral activity in BUNV-infected Vero cells. On the contrary, acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) efficiently inhibited BUNV infection with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 2.02 mM. In cell culture supernatants, ASA reduced viral titer up to three logarithmic units. A significant dose-dependent reduction of the expression levels of Gc and N viral proteins was also measured. Immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy showed that ASA protects the Golgi complex from the characteristic BUNV-induced fragmentation in Vero cells. Electron microscopy showed that ASA inhibits the assembly of Golgi-associated BUNV spherules that are the replication organelles of bunyaviruses. As a consequence, the assembly of new viral particles is also significantly reduced. Considering its availability and low cost, the potential usability of ASA to treat bunyavirus infections deserves further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - José P Cerón-Carrasco
- Centro Universitario de la Defensa, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, C/Coronel López Peña s/n, Base Aérea de San Javier, Santiago de la Ribera, 30720 Murcia, Spain
| | - Cristina Risco
- Cell Structure Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Fernández de Castro
- Cell Structure Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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14
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Bivacqua R, Romeo I, Barreca M, Barraja P, Alcaro S, Montalbano A. HSV-1 Glycoprotein D and Its Surface Receptors: Evaluation of Protein-Protein Interaction and Targeting by Triazole-Based Compounds through In Silico Approaches. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087092. [PMID: 37108255 PMCID: PMC10138673 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions (PPI) represent attractive targets for drug design. Thus, aiming at a deeper insight into the HSV-1 envelope glycoprotein D (gD), protein-protein docking and dynamic simulations of gD-HVEM and gD-Nectin-1 complexes were performed. The most stable complexes and the pivotal key residues useful for gD to anchor human receptors were identified and used as starting points for a structure-based virtual screening on a library of both synthetic and designed 1,2,3-triazole-based compounds. Their binding properties versus gD interface with HVEM and Nectin-1 along with their structure-activity relationships (SARs) were evaluated. Four [1,2,3]triazolo[4,5-b]pyridines were identified as potential HSV-1 gD inhibitors, for their good theoretical affinity towards all conformations of HSV-1 gD. Overall, this study suggests promising basis for the design of new antiviral agents targeting gD as a valuable strategy to prevent viral attachment and penetration into the host cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Bivacqua
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università degli Studi di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy
| | - Isabella Romeo
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università degli Studi "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, Campus "S. Venuta", Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, Università degli Studi "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, Campus "S. Venuta", Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Marilia Barreca
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università degli Studi di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy
| | - Paola Barraja
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università degli Studi di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy
| | - Stefano Alcaro
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università degli Studi "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, Campus "S. Venuta", Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, Università degli Studi "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, Campus "S. Venuta", Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Alessandra Montalbano
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università degli Studi di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy
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15
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Ibba R, Corona P, Nonne F, Caria P, Serreli G, Palmas V, Riu F, Sestito S, Nieddu M, Loddo R, Sanna G, Piras S, Carta A. Design, Synthesis, and Antiviral Activities of New Benzotriazole-Based Derivatives. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:ph16030429. [PMID: 36986528 PMCID: PMC10054465 DOI: 10.3390/ph16030429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Several human diseases are caused by enteroviruses and are currently clinically untreatable, pushing the research to identify new antivirals. A notable number of benzo[d][1,2,3]triazol-1(2)-yl derivatives were designed, synthesized, and in vitro evaluated for cytotoxicity and antiviral activity against a wide spectrum of RNA positive- and negative-sense viruses. Five of them (11b, 18e, 41a, 43a, 99b) emerged for their selective antiviral activity against Coxsackievirus B5, a human enteroviruses member among the Picornaviridae family. The EC50 values ranged between 6 and 18.5 μM. Among all derivatives, compounds 18e and 43a were interestingly active against CVB5 and were selected to better define the safety profile on cell monolayers by transepithelial resistance test (TEER). Results indicated compound 18e as the hit compound to investigate the potential mechanism of action by apoptosis assay, virucidal activity test, and the time of addition assay. CVB5 is known to be cytotoxic by inducing apoptosis in infected cells; in this study, compound 18e was proved to protect cells from viral infection. Notably, cells were mostly protected when pre-treated with derivative 18e, which had, however, no virucidal activity. From the performed biological assays, compound 18e turned out to be non-cytotoxic as well as cell protective against CVB5 infection, with a mechanism of action ascribable to an interaction on the early phase of infection, by hijacking the viral attachment process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Ibba
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
| | - Paola Corona
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
| | - Francesca Nonne
- GSK Vaccine Institute for Global Health GSK, Via Fiorentina, 1, 53100 Siena, Italy;
| | - Paola Caria
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (P.C.); (G.S.); (V.P.); (R.L.)
| | - Gabriele Serreli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (P.C.); (G.S.); (V.P.); (R.L.)
| | - Vanessa Palmas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (P.C.); (G.S.); (V.P.); (R.L.)
| | - Federico Riu
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
- Department of Chemistry, Biomedicinskt Centrum, BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Simona Sestito
- Department of Chemical, Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Sassari, Via Vienna 2, 07100 Sassari, Italy;
| | - Maria Nieddu
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
| | - Roberta Loddo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (P.C.); (G.S.); (V.P.); (R.L.)
| | - Giuseppina Sanna
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; (P.C.); (G.S.); (V.P.); (R.L.)
- Correspondence: (G.S.); (S.P.)
| | - Sandra Piras
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
- Correspondence: (G.S.); (S.P.)
| | - Antonio Carta
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni, 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (R.I.); (P.C.); (F.R.); (M.N.)
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