A novel small Odorranalectin-bearing cubosomes: Preparation, brain delivery and pharmacodynamic study on amyloid-β25–35-treated rats following intranasal administration

Cubosomes functionalized with antibodies as a potential strategy for the treatment of HER2-positive breast cancer

Breast cancers that overexpress human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) have poor prognosis. Moreover, available chemotherapies cause numerous side effects due to poor selectivity. To advance more effective and safer therapies for HER2-positive breast cancer, we explored the fusion of drug delivery technology and immunotherapy. Our research led to the design of immunocubosomes loaded with panobinostat and functionalized with trastuzumab antibodies, enabling precise targeting of breast cancer cells that overexpress HER2. We characterised the nanostructure of cubosomes using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Moreover, we confirmed the integrity of the trastuzumab antibodies on the immunocubosomes by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Additionally, we found that panobinostat-loaded immunocubosomes were more cytotoxic, and in an uptake-dependant manner, towards a HER2-positive breast cancer cell line (SKBR3) compared to a cell line representing healthy cells (L929). These results support that the functionalization of cubosomes with antibodies enhances both the effectiveness of the loaded drug and its selectivity for targeting HER2-positive breast cancer cells.

Breaking Barriers in Alzheimer's Disease: the Role of Advanced Drug Delivery Systems

Alzheimer's disease (AD), characterized by cognitive impairment, brain plaques, and tangles, is a global health concern affecting millions. It involves the build-up of amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau proteins, the formation of neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, cholinergic system dysfunction, genetic variations, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Various signaling pathways and metabolic processes are implicated in AD, along with numerous biomarkers used for diagnosis, risk assessment, and research. Despite these, there is no cure or effective treatment for AD. It is critically important to address this immediately to develop novel drug delivery systems (NDDS) capable of targeting the brain and delivering therapeutic agents to modulate the pathological processes of AD. This review summarizes AD, its pathogenesis, related signaling pathways, biomarkers, conventional treatments, the need for NDDS, and their application in AD treatment. It also covers preclinical, clinical, and ongoing trials, patents, and marketed AD formulations.

Cubosomes as versatile lipid nanocarriers for neurological disorder therapeutics: a comprehensive review

Cubosomes are novel vesicular drug delivery systems with lipidic liquid crystal nanoparticles formed of predetermined proportions of amphiphilic lipids. They have a honeycomb-like structure and are thermodynamically stable. These bicontinuous lipid layers are separated into two water-based channels internally that can be used by various bioactive substances, including drugs, proteins, and peptides. This complex structure is responsible for its high drug-loading capacity. Cubosomes are thought to be promising vehicles for various routes of administration because of their extraordinary characteristics, including bioadhesion, the capacity to encapsulate hydrophilic, and hydrophobic, as well as amphiphilic substances, high resistance to environmental stress, and their ability to achieve controlled release through modification. One of the essential elements for improving patient compliance is the ability of these well-defined nano-drug delivery systems to boost the effectiveness of targeting while lowering the side effects/toxicities of payloads. The large internal surface area, a sufficiently uncomplicated fabrication procedure, and biodegradability make it an attractive nano lipid carrier for drug delivery. This review outlines the recent advancement of cubosomes for managing various neurological disorders, highlighting their potential in this field.

Functionalized nanoparticles to deliver nucleic acids to the brain for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Brain-targeted gene delivery across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a significant challenge in the 21st century for the healthcare sector, particularly in developing an effective treatment strategy against Alzheimer's disease (AD). The Internal architecture of the brain capillary endothelium restricts bio-actives entry into the brain. Additionally, therapy with nucleic acids faces challenges like vulnerability to degradation by nucleases and potential immune responses. Functionalized nanocarrier-based gene delivery approaches have resulted in safe and effective platforms. These nanoparticles (NPs) have demonstrated efficacy in protecting nucleic acids from degradation, enhancing transport across the BBB, increasing bioavailability, prolonging circulation time, and regulating gene expression of key proteins involved in AD pathology. We provided a detailed review of several nanocarriers and targeting ligands such as cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), endogenous proteins, and antibodies. The utilization of functionalized NPs extends beyond a singular system, serving as a versatile platform for customization in related neurodegenerative diseases. Only a few numbers of bioactive regimens can go through the BBB. Thus, exploring functionalized NPs for brain-targeted gene delivery is of utmost necessity. Currently, genes are considered high therapeutic potential molecules for altering any disease-causing gene. Through surface modification, nanoparticulate systems can be tailored to address various diseases by replacing the target-specific molecule on their surface. This review article presents several nanoparticulate delivery systems, such as lipid NPs, polymeric micelles, exosomes, and polymeric NPs, for nucleic acids delivery to the brain and the functionalization strategies explored in AD research.

Nanomedicine-mediated recovery of antioxidant glutathione peroxidase activity after oxidative-stress cellular damage: Insights for neurological long COVID

Nanomedicine for treating post-viral infectious disease syndrome is at an emerging stage. Despite promising results from preclinical studies on conventional antioxidants, their clinical translation as a therapy for treating post-COVID conditions remains challenging. The limitations are due to their low bioavailability, instability, limited transport to the target tissues, and short half-life, requiring frequent and high doses. Activating the immune system during coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection can lead to increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), depleted antioxidant reserve, and finally, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. To tackle this problem, we developed an antioxidant nanotherapy based on lipid (vesicular and cubosomal types) nanoparticles (LNPs) co-encapsulating ginkgolide B and quercetin. The antioxidant-loaded nanocarriers were prepared by a self-assembly method via hydration of a lyophilized mixed thin lipid film. We evaluated the LNPs in a new in vitro model for studying neuronal dysfunction caused by oxidative stress in coronavirus infection. We examined the key downstream signaling pathways that are triggered in response to potassium persulfate (KPS) causing oxidative stress-mediated neurotoxicity. Treatment of neuronally-derived cells (SH-SY5Y) with KPS (50 mM) for 30 min markedly increased mitochondrial dysfunction while depleting the levels of both glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). This led to the sequential activation of apoptotic and necrotic cell death processes, which corroborates with the crucial implication of the two proteins (GSH-Px and TH) in the long-COVID syndrome. Nanomedicine-mediated treatment with ginkgolide B-loaded cubosomes and vesicular LNPs showed minimal cytotoxicity and completely attenuated the KPS-induced cell death process, decreasing apoptosis from 32.6% (KPS) to 19.0% (MO-GB), 12.8% (MO-GB-Quer), 14.8% (DMPC-PEG-GB), and 23.6% (DMPC-PEG-GB-Quer) via free radical scavenging and replenished GSH-Px levels. These findings indicated that GB-LNPs-based nanomedicines may protect against KPS-induced apoptosis by regulating intracellular redox homeostasis.

Lipid nanoparticles: The game-changer in CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing

The steady progress in genome editing, especially genome editing based on the use of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and programmable nucleases to make precise modifications to genetic material, has provided enormous opportunities to advance biomedical research and promote human health. However, limited transfection efficiency of CRISPR-Cas9 poses a substantial challenge, hindering its wide adoption for genetic modification. Recent advancements in nanoparticle technology, specifically lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), offer promising opportunities for targeted drug delivery. LNPs are becoming popular as a means of delivering therapeutics, including those based on nucleic acids and mRNA. Notably, certain LNPs, such as Polyethylene glycol-phospholipid-modified cationic lipid nanoparticles and solid lipid nanoparticles, exhibit remarkable potential for efficient CRISPR-Cas9 delivery as a gene editing instrument. This review will introduce the molecular mechanisms and diverse applications of the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system, current strategies for delivering CRISPR/Cas9-based tools, the advantage of LNPs for CRISPR-Cas9 delivery, an overview of strategies for overcoming off-target genome editing, and approaches for improving genome targeting and tissue targeting. We will also highlight current developments and recent clinical trials for the delivery of CRISPR/Cas9. Finally, future directions for overcoming the limitations and adaptation of this technology for clinical trials will be discussed.

Nose-to-Brain (N2B) Delivery: An Alternative Route for the Delivery of Biologics in the Management and Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders

In recent years, there have been a growing number of small and large molecules that could be used to treat diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). Nose-to-brain delivery can be a potential option for the direct transport of molecules from the nasal cavity to different brain areas. This review aims to provide a compilation of current approaches regarding drug delivery to the CNS via the nose, with a focus on biologics. The review also includes a discussion on the key benefits of nasal delivery as a promising alternative route for drug administration and the involved pathways or mechanisms. This article reviews how the application of various auxiliary agents, such as permeation enhancers, mucolytics, in situ gelling/mucoadhesive agents, enzyme inhibitors, and polymeric and lipid-based systems, can promote the delivery of large molecules in the CNS. The article also includes a discussion on the current state of intranasal formulation development and summarizes the biologics currently in clinical trials. It was noted that significant progress has been made in this field, and these are currently being applied to successfully transport large molecules to the CNS via the nose. However, a deep mechanistic understanding of this route, along with the intimate knowledge of various excipients and their interactions with the drug and nasal physiology, is still necessary to bring us one step closer to developing effective formulations for nasal-brain drug delivery.

Nanovesicular-Mediated Intranasal Drug Therapy for Neurodegenerative Disease

Numerous neurodegenerative conditions, such as Alzheimer's, Huntington's, Parkinson's, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and glioblastoma multiform are now becoming significant concerns of global health. Formulation-related issues, physiological and anatomical barriers, post-administration obstacles, physical challenges, regulatory limitations, environmental hurdles, and health and safety issues have all hindered successful delivery and effective outcomes despite a variety of treatment options. In the current review, we covered the intranasal route, an alternative strategic route targeting brain for improved delivery across the BBB. The trans-nasal pathway is non-invasive, directing therapeutics directly towards brain, circumventing the barrier and reducing peripheral exposure. The delivery of nanosized vesicles loaded with drugs was also covered in the review. Nanovesicle systems are organised in concentric bilayered lipid membranes separated with aqueous layers. These carriers surmount the disadvantages posed by intranasal delivery of rapid mucociliary clearance and enzymatic degradation, and enhance retention of drug to reach the site of target. In conclusion, the review covers in-depth conclusions on numerous aspects of formulation of drug-loaded vesicular system delivery across BBB, current marketed nasal devices, significant jeopardies, potential therapeutic aids, and current advancements followed by future perspectives.

Recent Advances in the Development of Liquid Crystalline Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems

Due to their distinctive structural features, lyotropic nonlamellar liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs), such as cubosomes and hexosomes, are considered effective drug delivery systems. Cubosomes have a lipid bilayer that makes a membrane lattice with two water channels that are intertwined. Hexosomes are inverse hexagonal phases made of an infinite number of hexagonal lattices that are tightly connected with water channels. These nanostructures are often stabilized by surfactants. The structure's membrane has a much larger surface area than that of other lipid nanoparticles, which makes it possible to load therapeutic molecules. In addition, the composition of mesophases can be modified by pore diameters, thus influencing drug release. Much research has been conducted in recent years to improve their preparation and characterization, as well as to control drug release and improve the efficacy of loaded bioactive chemicals. This article reviews current advances in LCNP technology that permit their application, as well as design ideas for revolutionary biomedical applications. Furthermore, we have provided a summary of the application of LCNPs based on the administration routes, including the pharmacokinetic modulation property.

Peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs): a novel trend of research and development on targeted therapy, hype or hope?

Peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs) are the next generation of targeted therapeutics drug after antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), with the core benefits of enhanced cellular permeability and improved drug selectivity. Two drugs are now approved for market by US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and in the last two years, the pharmaceutical companies have been developing PDCs as targeted therapeutic candidates for cancer, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), metabolic diseases, and so on. The therapeutic benefits of PDCs are significant, but poor stability, low bioactivity, long research and development time, and slow clinical development process as therapeutic agents of PDC, how can we design PDCs more effectively and what is the future direction of PDCs? This review summarises the components and functions of PDCs for therapeutic, from drug target screening and PDC design improvement strategies to clinical applications to improve the permeability, targeting, and stability of the various components of PDCs. This holds great promise for the future of PDCs, such as bicyclic peptide‒toxin coupling or supramolecular nanostructures for peptide-conjugated drugs. The mode of drug delivery is determined according to the PDC design and current clinical trials are summarised. The way is shown for future PDC development.

Drug delivery to the brain via the nasal route of administration: exploration of key targets and major consideration factors

Background

Cranial nerve-related diseases such as brain tumors, Alzheimer's disease, and epilepsy are serious diseases that continue to threaten human. Brain-related diseases are increasing worldwide, including in the United States and Korea, and these increases are closely related to the exposure to harmful substances and excessive stress caused by rapid industrialization and environmental pollution. Drug delivery to the brain is very important for the effective prevention and treatment of brain-related diseases. However, due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier and the extensive first-pass metabolism effect, the general routes of administration such as oral and intravenous routes have limitations in drug delivery to the brain. Therefore, as an alternative, the nasal-brain drug delivery route is attracting attention as a route for effective drug delivery to the brain.

Areas covered

This review includes physiological factors, advantages, limitations, current application status, especially in clinical applications, and the necessary factors for consideration in formulation development related to nasal-brain drug delivery.

Expert opinion

The nasal-brain drug delivery route has the advantage of enhancing drug delivery to the brain locally, mainly through the olfactory route rather than the systemic circulation. The nasal-brain lymphatic system has recently attracted attention, and it has been implied that the delivery of anticancer drugs to the brain nervous system is possible effectively. However, there are limitations such as low drug permeability, as well as nasal mucosa and the mucociliary system, as obstacles in nasal-brain drug delivery. Therefore, to overcome the limitations of nasal-brain drug delivery, the use of nanocarriers and mucoadhesive agents is being attempted. However, very few drugs have been officially approved for clinical application via the nasal-brain drug delivery route. This is probably because the understanding of and related studies on nasal-brain drug delivery are limited. In this review, we tried to explore the major considerations and target factors in drug delivery through the nasal-brain route based on physiological knowledge and formulation research information. This will help to provide a mechanistic understanding of drug delivery through the nasal-brain route and bring us one step closer to developing effective formulations and drugs in consideration of the key factors for nasal-brain drug delivery.

Self-Assembled Nanoscale Materials for Neuronal Regeneration: A Focus on BDNF Protein and Nucleic Acid Biotherapeutic Delivery

Enabling challenging applications of nanomedicine and precision medicine in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders requires deeper investigations of nanocarrier-mediated biomolecular delivery for neuronal targeting and recovery. The successful use of macromolecular biotherapeutics (recombinant growth factors, antibodies, enzymes, synthetic peptides, cell-penetrating peptide–drug conjugates, and RNAi sequences) in clinical developments for neuronal regeneration should benefit from the recent strategies for enhancement of their bioavailability. We highlight the advances in the development of nanoscale materials for drug delivery in neurodegenerative disorders. The emphasis is placed on nanoformulations for the delivery of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) using different types of lipidic nanocarriers (liposomes, liquid crystalline or solid lipid nanoparticles) and polymer-based scaffolds, nanofibers and hydrogels. Self-assembled soft-matter nanoscale materials show favorable neuroprotective characteristics, safety, and efficacy profiles in drug delivery to the central and peripheral nervous systems. The advances summarized here indicate that neuroprotective biomolecule-loaded nanoparticles and injectable hydrogels can improve neuronal survival and reduce tissue injury. Certain recently reported neuronal dysfunctions in long-COVID-19 survivors represent early manifestations of neurodegenerative pathologies. Therefore, BDNF delivery systems may also help in prospective studies on recovery from long-term COVID-19 neurological complications and be considered as promising systems for personalized treatment of neuronal dysfunctions and prevention or retarding of neurodegenerative disorders.

Intranasal Delivery of Functionalized Polymeric Nanomaterials to the Brain

Intravenous delivery of nanomaterials containing therapeutic agents and various cargos for treating neurological disorders is often constrained by low delivery efficacy due to difficulties in passing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Nanoparticles (NPs) administered intranasally can move along olfactory and trigeminal nerves so that they do not need to pass through the BBB, allowing non-invasive, direct access to selective neural pathways within the brain. Hence, intranasal (IN) administration of NPs can effectively deliver drugs and genes into targeted regions of the brain, holding potential for efficacious disease treatment in the central nervous system (CNS). In this review, current methods for delivering conjugated NPs to the brain are primarily discussed. Distinctive potential mechanisms of therapeutic nanocomposites delivered via IN pathways to the brain are then discussed. Recent progress in developing functional NPs for applications in multimodal bioimaging, drug delivery, diagnostics, and therapeutics is also reviewed. This review is then concluded by discussing existing challenges, new directions, and future perspectives in IN delivery of nanomaterials.

Using nanotechnology to deliver biomolecules from nose to brain - peptides, proteins, monoclonal antibodies and RNA

There is a growing number of biomolecules, including peptides, proteins, monoclonal antibodies and RNA, that could be potentially used for the treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases. However, the realization of their potential is being hampered by the extraordinary difficulties these complex biomolecules have to reach the brain in therapeutically meaningful amounts. Nose-to-brain (N-to-B) delivery is now being investigated as a potential option for the direct transport of biomolecules from the nasal cavity to different brain areas. Here, we discuss how different technological approaches enhance this N-to-B transport, with emphasis on those that have shown a potential for clinical translation. We also analyse how the physicochemical properties of nanocarriers and their modification with cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) and targeting ligands affect their efficacy as N-to-B carriers for biomolecules.

Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Nanostructures as Drug Delivery Systems and Vaccine Platforms

Lyotropic liquid crystals result from the self-assembly process of amphiphilic molecules, such as lipids, into water, being organized in different mesophases. The non-lamellar formed mesophases, such as bicontinuous cubic (cubosomes) and inverse hexagonal (hexosomes), attract great scientific interest in the field of pharmaceutical nanotechnology. In the present review, an overview of the engineering and characterization of non-lamellar lyotropic liquid crystalline nanosystems (LLCN) is provided, focusing on their advantages as drug delivery nanocarriers and innovative vaccine platforms. It is described that non-lamellar LLCN can be utilized as drug delivery nanosystems, as well as for protein, peptide, and nucleic acid delivery. They exhibit major advantages, including stimuli-responsive properties for the “on demand” drug release delivery and the ability for controlled release by manipulating their internal conformation properties and their administration by different routes. Moreover, non-lamellar LLCN exhibit unique adjuvant properties to activate the immune system, being ideal for the development of novel vaccines. This review outlines the recent advances in lipid-based liquid crystalline technology and highlights the unique features of such systems, with a hopeful scope to contribute to the rational design of future nanosystems.

Lipid-Based Nanocarriers via Nose-to-Brain Pathway for Central Nervous System Disorders

Neurodegenerative disorders are distinguished by the gradual deterioration of the nervous system's structure and function due to oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, protein misfolding, excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation. Among these NDs, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis characterized an increasing dysfunction and loss of neuronal structure leading to neuronal cell death. Although there is currently no drug to totally reverse the effects of NDs, such novel formulations and administration routes are developed for better management and nose-to-brain delivery is one of delivery for treating NDs. This review aimed to highlight advances in research on various lipid based nanocarriers such as liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, microemulsion, nanoemulsion, and cubosomes which are reported to treat and alleviate the symptoms of NDs via nose-to-brain route. The challenges during clinical translation of lipid nanocarriers from bench to bed side is also discussed.

Lipid Cubic Systems for Sustained and Controlled Delivery of Antihistamine Drugs

Antihistamines are capable of blocking mediator responses in allergic reactions including allergic rhinitis and dermatological reactions. By incorporating various H1 receptor antagonists into a lipid cubic phase network, these active ingredients can be delivered locally over an extended period of time owing to the mucoadhesive nature of the system. Local delivery can avoid inducing unwanted side effects, often observed after systematic delivery. Lipid-based antihistamine delivery systems are shown here to exhibit prolonged release capabilities. In vitro drug dissolution studies investigated the extent and release rate of two model first-generation and two model second-generation H1 antagonist antihistamine drugs from two monoacyglycerol-derived lipid models. To optimize the formulation approach, the systems were characterized macroscopically and microscopically by small-angle X-ray scattering and polarized light to ascertain the mesophase accessed upon an incorporation of antihistamines of varying solubilities and size. The impact of encapsulating the antihistamine molecules on the degree of mucoadhesivity of the lipid cubic systems was investigated using multiparametric surface plasmon resonance. With the ultimate goal of developing therapies for the treatment of allergic reactions, the ability of the formulations to inhibit mediator release utilizing RBL-2H3 mast cells with the propensity to release histamine upon induction was explored, demonstrating no interference from the lipid excipient on the effectiveness of the antihistamine molecules.

Nano-lipidic formulation and therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease via intranasal route

AIM

The inability of drug molecules to cross the 'Blood-Brain Barrier' restrict the effective treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Lipid nanocarriers have proven to be a novel paradigm in brain targeting of bioactive by facilitating suitable therapeutic concentrations to be attained in the brain.

METHODS

The relevant information regarding the title of this review article was collected from the peer-reviewed published articles. Also, the physicochemical properties, and their in vitro and in vivo evaluations were presented in this review article.

RESULTS

Administration of lipid-based nano-carriers have abilities to target the brain, improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics properties of drugs, and mitigate the side effects of encapsulated therapeutic active agents.

CONCLUSION

Unlike oral and other routes, the Intranasal route promises high bioavailability, low first-pass effect, better pharmacokinetic properties, bypass of the systemic circulation, fewer incidences of unwanted side effects, and direct delivery of anti-AD drugs to the brain via circumventing 'Blood-Brain Barrier'.

The Influence of Hydrophobic Blocks of PEO-Containing Copolymers on Glyceryl Monooleate Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

The investigation of properties of amphiphilic block copolymers as stabilizers for non-lamellar lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles represents a fundamental issue for the formation, stability and upgraded functionality of these nanosystems. The aim of this work is to use amphiphilic block copolymers, not studied before, as stabilizers of glyceryl monooleate 1-(cis-9-octadecenoyl)-rac-glycerol (GMO) colloidal dispersions. Nanosystems were prepared with the use of poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(lactic acid) (PEO-b-PLA) and poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(5-methyl-5-ethyloxycarbonyl-1,3-dioxan-2-one) (PEO-b-PMEC) block copolymers. Different GMO:polymer molar ratios lead to formulation of nanoparticles with different size and internal organization, depending on the type of hydrophobic block. Resveratrol was loaded into the nanosystems as a model hydrophobic drug. The physicochemical and morphological characteristics of the prepared nanosystems were investigated by dynamic light scattering (DLS), cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), fast Fourier transform (FFT) analysis and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The studies allowed the description of the lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles and evaluation of impact of copolymer composition on these nanosystems. The structures formed in GMO:block copolymer colloidal dispersions were compared with those discussed previously. The investigations broaden the toolbox of polymeric stabilizers for the development of this type of hybrid polymer/lipid nanostructures.

Intranasal galantamine/chitosan complex nanoparticles elicit neuroprotection potentials in rat brains via antioxidant effect

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease is a common cause of dementia in the elderly. Galantamine hydrobromide (GH) is an anti-Alzheimer cholinesterase inhibitor that has an intrinsic antioxidant effect. In a previous study, GH was complexed with chitosan to prepare intranasal GH/chitosan complex nanoparticles (CX-NP2). The nanoparticles were located in rat brains 1 h after nasal administration and showed pharmacological superiority to GH nasal solution without showing histopathological toxicity.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate whether the long-term administration of CX-NP2 leads to biochemical toxicity in rat brains compared to GH nasal solution.

METHODS

CX-NP2 dispersion and GH solution were administrated intranasally to male Wistar rats for 30 days (3 mg/kg/day). Malondialdehyde (MDA), lipid peroxidation marker, glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were assessed in the brain extracts in all groups.

RESULTS

There was statistically insignificant difference between the CX-NP2 and GH nasal solution treated groups in all biochemical toxicity parameters assessed. Interestingly, MDA and TNF-α levels in the CX-NP2-treated group significantly decreased compared to the control group. Also, GSH level and SOD activity were significantly enhanced in CX-NP2 treated group compared to the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

CX-NP2 did not induce a statistically significant oxidative stress or neuroinflammation in rat brains after 30-day treatment, they rather elicited neuroprotective potentials.HighlightsIntranasal GH/chitosan complex nanoparticles (CX-NP2) show promising potential as a brain targeting carrier.Compared to GH nasal solution, nasal CX-NP2 formulation did not exert oxidative stress nor neuroinflammation when administered for 30 days.

Recent advances in drug delivery applications of cubosomes, hexosomes, and solid lipid nanoparticles

The use of lipid nanocarriers for drug delivery applications is an active research area, and a great interest has particularly been shown in the past two decades. Among different lipid nanocarriers, ISAsomes (Internally self-assembled somes or particles), including cubosomes and hexosomes, and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have unique structural features, making them attractive as nanocarriers for drug delivery. In this contribution, we focus exclusively on recent advances in formation and characterization of ISAsomes, mainly cubosomes and hexosomes, and their use as versatile nanocarriers for different drug delivery applications. Additionally, the advantages of SLNs and their application in oral and pulmonary drug delivery are discussed with focus on the biological fates of these lipid nanocarriers in vivo. Despite the demonstrated advantages in in vitro and in vivo evaluations including preclinical studies, further investigations on improved understanding of the interactions of these nanoparticles with biological fluids and tissues of the target sites is necessary for efficient designing of drug nanocarriers and exploring potential clinical applications.

Progress and perspectives of brain-targeting lipid-based nanosystems via the nasal route in Alzheimer's disease

Since health care systems dedicate substantial resources to Alzheimer's disease (AD), it poses an increasing challenge to scientists and health care providers worldwide, especially that many decades of research in the medical field revealed no optimal effective treatment for this disease. The intranasal administration route seems to be a preferable route of anti-AD drug delivery over the oral one as it demonstrates an ability to overcome the related obstacles reflected in low bioavailability, limited brain exposure and undesired pharmacokinetics or side effects. This delivery route can bypass the systemic circulation through the intraneuronal and extraneuronal pathways, providing truly needleless and direct brain drug delivery of the therapeutics due to its large surface area, porous endothelial membrane, the avoidance of the first-pass metabolism, and ready accessibility. Among the different nano-carrier systems developed, lipid-based nanosystems have become increasingly popular and have proven to be effective in managing the common symptoms of AD when administered via the nose-to-brain delivery route, which provides an answer to circumventing the BBB. The design of such lipid-based nanocarriers could be challenging since many factors can contribute to the quality of the final product. Hence, according to the authors, it is recommended to follow the quality by design methodology from the early stage of development to ensure high product quality while saving efforts and costs. This review article aims to draw attention to the up-to-date findings in the field of lipid-based nanosystems and the potential role of developing such forms in the management of AD by means of the nose-to-brain delivery route, in addition to highlighting the significant role of applying QbD methodology in this development.

Non-Lamellar Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Lipid Nanoparticles for the Next Generation of Nanomedicine

Nonlamellar lyotropic liquid crystalline (LLC) lipid nanomaterials have emerged as a promising class of advanced materials for the next generation of nanomedicine, comprising mainly of amphiphilic lipids and functional additives self-assembling into two- and three-dimensional, inverse hexagonal, and cubic nanostructures. In particular, the lyotropic liquid crystalline lipid nanoparticles (LCNPs) have received great interest as nanocarriers for a variety of hydrophobic and hydrophilic small molecule drugs, peptides, proteins, siRNAs, DNAs, and imaging agents. Within this space, there has been a tremendous amount of effort over the last two decades elucidating the self-assembly behavior and structure-function relationship of natural and synthetic lipid-based drug delivery vehicles in vitro, yet successful clinical translation remains sparse due to the lack of understanding of these materials in biological bodies. This review provides an overview of (1) the benefits and advantages of using LCNPs as drug delivery nanocarriers, (2) design principles for making LCNPs with desirable functionalities for drug delivery applications, (3) current understanding of the LLC material-biology interface illustrated by more than 50 in vivo, preclinical studies, and (4) current patenting and translation activities in a pharmaceutical context. Together with our perspectives and expert opinions, we anticipate that this review will guide future studies in developing LCNP-based drug delivery nanocarriers with the objective of translating them into a key player among nanoparticle platforms comprising the next generation of nanomedicine for disease therapy and diagnosis.

In vitro characterization of odorranalectin for peptide-based drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier

BACKGROUND

The use of siRNA-based gene silencing has been recently underscored as a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of neurological disorders. However, the stability of siRNA and other small molecule therapeutics is challenged by their intrinsic instability and limited passage across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Based on these premises, our objective was to characterize/optimize odorranalectin (OL), a small non-immunogenic lectin-like peptide, as a carrier for targeted delivery across the BBB. For this purpose, 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein-conjugated OL and scramble peptide were synthesized, and then their BBB cellular internalization/trafficking and stability were characterized versus temperature, pH and serum content in the media in hCMEC/D3 cells as a model of BBB endothelium. Specifically, integrity of the internalized peptide in cell lysates was analyzed by LC/MS while cellular distribution and intracellular trafficking of OL was examined by fluorescence microscopy with early-late endosome (pHRodo Red^®) and lysosome (Lysotracker^®) markers.

RESULTS

Our data show that cellular uptake of OL increased linearly with the concentrations tested in this study at 37 °C and the uptake was two to threefolds higher when compared to scramble peptide. While there were no differences for scramble peptide, the uptake of OL decreased by 50% at 4 °C incubation (vs. 37 °C). No effects of pH were observed on endothelial uptake of OL. Immunofluorescence studies also indicated a significant cellular internalization of OL that remained intact (as evaluated by LC-MS/MS) and co-localized with endosomal, but not lysosome marker. Importantly, OL was found non-toxic to cells at all concentrations tested.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, our data suggest the existence of a receptor-mediated transcytosis pathway for cellular uptake of OL at the BBB endothelium. However, in vivo studies will be needed to assess the siRNA loading capacity of OL and its trans-BBB transport efficiency for targeted delivery in the brain.

Feasibility study of a point-of-care positron emission tomography system with interactive imaging capability

PURPOSE

We investigated the feasibility of a novel positron emission tomography (PET) system that provides near real-time feedback to an operator who can interactively scan a patient to optimize image quality. The system should be compact and mobile to support point-of-care (POC) molecular imaging applications. In this study, we present the key technologies required and discuss the potential benefits of such new capability.

METHODS

The core of this novel PET technology includes trackable PET detectors and a fully three-dimensional, fast image reconstruction engine implemented on multiple graphics processing units (GPUs) to support dynamically changing geometry by calculating the system matrix on-the-fly using a tube-of-response approach. With near real-time image reconstruction capability, a POC-PET system may comprise a maneuverable front PET detector and a second detector panel which can be stationary or moved synchronously with the front detector such that both panels face the region-of-interest (ROI) with the detector trajectory contoured around a patient's body. We built a proof-of-concept prototype using two planar detectors each consisting of a photomultiplier tube (PMT) optically coupled to an array of 48 × 48 lutetium-yttrium oxyorthosilicate (LYSO) crystals (1.0 × 1.0 × 10.0 mm³ each). Only 38 × 38 crystals in each arrays can be clearly re-solved and used for coincidence detection. One detector was mounted to a robotic arm which can position it at arbitrary locations, and the other detector was mounted on a rotational stage. A cylindrical phantom (102 mm in diameter, 150 mm long) with nine spherical lesions (8:1 tumor-to-background activity concentration ratio) was imaged from 27 sampling angles. List-mode events were reconstructed to form images without or with time-of-flight (TOF) information. We conducted two Monte Carlo simulations using two POC-PET systems. The first one uses the same phantom and detector setup as our experiment, with the detector coincidence re-solving time (CRT) ranging from 100 to 700 ps full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM). The second study simulates a body-size phantom (316 × 228 × 160 mm³ ) imaged by a larger POC-PET system that has 4 × 6 modules (32 × 32 LYSO crystals/module, four in axial and six in transaxial directions) in the front panel and 3 × 8 modules (16 × 16 LYSO crystals/module, three in axial and eight in transaxial directions) in the back panel. We also evaluated an interactive scanning strategy by progressively increasing the number of data sets used for image reconstruction. The updated images were analyzed based on the number of data sets and the detector CRT.

RESULTS

The proof-of-concept prototype re-solves most of the spherical lesions despite a limited number of coincidence events and incomplete sampling. TOF information reduces artifacts in the reconstructed images. Systems with better timing resolution exhibit improved image quality and reduced artifacts. We observed a reconstruction speed of 0.96 × 10⁶ events/s/iteration for 600 × 600 × 224 voxel rectilinear space using four GPUs. A POC-PET system with significantly higher sensitivity can interactively image a body-size object from four angles in less than 7 min.

CONCLUSIONS

We have developed GPU-based fast image reconstruction capability to support a PET system with arbitrary and dynamically changing geometry. Using TOF PET detectors, we demonstrated the feasibility of a PET system that can provide timely visual feedback to an operator who can scan a patient interactively to support POC imaging applications.

Amphiphilic Nanocarrier Systems for Curcumin Delivery in Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurodegenerative diseases have become a major challenge for public health because of their incurable status. Soft nanotechnology provides potential for slowing down the progression of neurodegenerative disorders by using innovative formulations of neuroprotective antioxidants like curcumin, resveratrol, vitamin E, rosmarinic acid, 7,8-dihydroxyflavone, coenzyme Q10, and fish oil. Curcumin is a natural, liposoluble compound, which is of considerable interest for nanomedicine development in combination therapies. The neuroprotective effects of combination treatments can involve restorative mechanisms against oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, and protein aggregation. Despite the anti-amyloid and anti-tau potential of curcumin and its neurogenesis-stimulating properties, the utilization of this antioxidant as a drug in neuroregenerative therapies has huge limitations due to its poor water solubility, physico-chemical instability, and low oral bioavailability. We highlight the developments of soft lipid- and polymer-based delivery carriers of curcumin, which help improve the drug solubility and stability. We specifically focus on amphiphilic liquid crystalline nanocarriers (cubosome, hexosome, spongosome, and liposome particles) for the encapsulation of curcumin with the purpose of halting the progressive neuronal loss in Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

Nonlamellar liquid crystals: a new paradigm for the delivery of small molecules and bio-macromolecules

The aim of this article is to collate the recent developments in the field of drug delivery, medical therapeutics and diagnostics specifically involving the nonlamellar liquid crystalline (NLC) systems. This review highlights different NLC phases having cubic, hexagonal and sponge internal structures, and their application in the field of drug delivery, such as dose reduction, toxicity reduction and therapeutic efficacy enhancement either in the form of nanoparticles, colloidal dispersion or gels. In addition, application of NLC systems as vehicles for peptides, proteins and as a theranostic system in cancer and other disease conditions is also elaborated, which is a growing platform of interest. Overall, the present review gives us a complete outlook on applications of NLC systems in the field of medicine.

Nanostructured liquid crystalline formulation as a remarkable new drug delivery system of anti-epileptic drugs for treating children patients

PURPOSE

Development of a new dosage-form of antiepileptic-drugs appropriated for children.

METHODS

Clonazepam (Cl) was formulated as cubosomal-gel (cub-gel) to be used as a patch reservoir through transdermal-route. Cubosomes prepared using glycerol-mono-oleate(GMO)/Pluronic-F127(PF127) mixture. An actual-statistical design was used to investigate the effect of different stabilizing agents (Ethanol and PVA) and surfactant concentration on cubosomes' particle size and entrapping-efficiency. The selected formulae were evaluated by testing particle-morphology, in vitro drug release and stability. Cub-gel was prepared using selected cubosome formulae. The optimal cub-gel subjected to in vitro dissolution, ex-vivo permeation and skin deposition studies followed by studying its pharmacological effect.

RESULTS

Using PVA or Et as stabilizers with PF127 significantly decreases the average cubosomes'PS (352 ±  2.8 and 264 ± 2.16 nm) and increases EE (58.97 ± 4.57% and 54.21 ± 3.89%). Cubosomes increase the initial release rate of Cl to ensure rapid therapeutic effect (37.39% and 46.04% in the first hour) followed by a prolonged release till 4 h. Cub-gel containing PVA showed significantly higher Cl-transdermal permeation when compared to Cl-suspension. Moreover, increases the retention-time (89.57% at 48 h) and skin-deposition up to 6-times. It also reduces the epileptic seizures and alters the behavioral parameters induced by pilocarpine.

CONCLUSIONS

Cubosomal-gel could be considered an innovative dosage-form for Cl through the transdermal route.

An update on the role of nanovehicles in nose-to-brain drug delivery

A quantitative analysis has cast doubt over the limited advantages provided by particles for nose-to-brain (NTB) drug delivery. Thus, it is imperative to identify the role of nanovehicles in NTB drug delivery. If nanocarriers are used merely as an option to improve various properties of the drugs or the formulations, it is difficult for them to outperform conventional formulations, such as solutions or gels. However, nanovehicles bring about special features, such as maintenance of the solubilized state of drugs, sustained or delayed release, and enhanced penetration because of surface modifications, all of which lead to enhanced NTB delivery efficiency.

Nose-to-brain peptide delivery - The potential of nanotechnology

Nose-to-brain (N-to-B) delivery offers to protein and peptide drugs the possibility to reach the brain in a non-invasive way. This article is a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art of this emerging peptide delivery route, as well as of the challenges associated to it. Emphasis is given on the potential of nanosized drug delivery carriers to enhance the direct N-to-B transport of protein or peptide drugs. In particular, polymer- and lipid- based nanocarriers are comparatively analyzed in terms of the influence of their physicochemical characteristics and composition on their in vivo fate and efficacy. The use of biorecognitive ligands and permeation enhancers in order to enhance their brain targeting efficiency is also discussed. The article concludes highlighting the early stage of this research field and its still unveiled potential. The final message is that more explicatory PK/PD studies are required in order to achieve the translation from preclinical to the clinical development phase.

Self-assembled amphiphilic core-shell nanocarriers in line with the modern strategies for brain delivery

Disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) represent increasing social and economic problems all over the world which makes the effective transport of drugs to the brain a crucial need. In the last decade, many strategies were introduced to deliver drugs to the brain trying to overcome the challenge of the blood brain barrier (BBB) using both invasive and non-invasive methods. Non-invasive strategy represented in the application of nanocarriers became very common. One of the most hopeful nanoscopic carriers for brain delivery is core-shell nanocarriers or polymeric micelles (PMs). They are more advantageous than other nanocarriers. They offer small size, ease of preparation, ease of sterilization and the possibility of surface modification with various ligands. Hence, the aim of this review is to discuss modern strategies for brain delivery, micelles as a successful delivery system for the brain and how micelles could be modified to act as "magic bullets" for brain delivery.

In Vitro Modulation of TrkB Receptor Signaling upon Sequential Delivery of Curcumin-DHA Loaded Carriers Towards Promoting Neuronal Survival

PURPOSE

To in vitro investigate the capacity of carrier-free and lipid-nanoparticle (NP)-encapsulated phytochemical compounds to prevent neuronal damage through neurotrophin potentiating activities. Delivery of molecules promoting the neurotrophin receptor signaling in the central nervous system (CNS) present ongoing interest for combination therapy development.

METHODS

Super-resolution Stimulated Emission Depletion (STED) microscopy imaging and flow cytometry analysis were employed to study the expression of the neurotrophin TrkB receptor in a neuronal cell model, which is highly responsive to binding of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Dual drug-loaded nanoparticle formulations, prepared by self-assembly of lyotropic lipids and PEGylated amphiphile derivatives, were delivered to differentiated human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells subjected to degenerative conditions.

RESULTS

The expression of BDNF in the intra and extracellular domains was quantified by ELISA and flow cytometry after sequential treatment of the degenerating SH-SY5Y cells by neurotherapeutic formulations. Flow cytometry was also used to assess the phosphorylation of the transcription factor cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) in the intracellular domain as a result of the treatment by nanoformulations.

CONCLUSION

Over time, dual drug formulations (curcumin and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) promoted the neuronal survival and repair processes through enhanced BDNF secretion and increased phosphorylation of CREB as compared to untreated degenerating cells.

Progress and perspectives on targeting nanoparticles for brain drug delivery

Due to the ability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to prevent the entry of drugs into the brain, it is a challenge to treat central nervous system disorders pharmacologically. The development of nanotechnology provides potential to overcome this problem. In this review, the barriers to brain-targeted drug delivery are reviewed, including the BBB, blood-brain tumor barrier (BBTB), and nose-to-brain barrier. Delivery strategies are focused on overcoming the BBB, directly targeting diseased cells in the brain, and dual-targeted delivery. The major concerns and perspectives on constructing brain-targeted delivery systems are discussed.

Cubosomes: remarkable drug delivery potential

Cubosomes are nanostructured liquid crystalline particles, made of certain amphiphilic lipids in definite proportions, known as biocompatible carriers in drug delivery. Cubosomes comprise curved bicontinuous lipid bilayers that are organized in three dimensions as honeycombed structures and divided into two internal aqueous channels that can be exploited by various bioactive ingredients, such as chemical drugs, peptides and proteins. Owing to unique properties such as thermodynamic stability, bioadhesion, the ability of encapsulating hydrophilic, hydrophobic and amphiphilic substances, and the potential for controlled release through functionalization, cubosomes are regarded as promising vehicles for different routes of administration. Based on the most recent reports, this review introduces cubosomes focusing on their structure, preparation methods, mechanism of release and potential routes of administration.

Cubosomes and hexosomes as versatile platforms for drug delivery

Nonlamellar liquid crystalline phases are attractive platforms for drug solubilization and targeted delivery. The attractiveness of this formulation principle is linked to the nanostructural versatility, compatiblity, digestiblity and bioadhesive properties of their lipid constituents, and the capability of solubilizing and sustaining the release of amphiphilic, hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs. Nonlamellar liquid crystalline phases offer two distinct promising strategies in the development of drug delivery systems. These comprise formation of ISAsomes (internally self-assembled ‘somes’ or particles) such as cubosomes and hexosomes, and in situ formation of parenteral dosage forms with tunable nanostructures at the site of administration. This review outlines the unique features of cubosomes and hexosomes and their potential utilization as promising platforms for drug delivery.

Enhanced bioavailability of nerve growth factor with phytantriol lipid-based crystalline nanoparticles in cochlea

Purpose

Supplementation of exogenous nerve growth factor (NGF) into the cochlea of deafened animals rescues spiral ganglion cells from degeneration. However, a safe and potent delivery of therapeutic proteins, such as NGF, to spiral ganglion cells remains one of the greatest challenges. This study presents the development of self-assembled cubic lipid-based crystalline nanoparticles to enhance inner ear bioavailability of bioactive NGF via a round window membrane route.

Methods

A novel nanocarrier-entrapped NGF was developed based on phytantriol by a liquid precursor dilution, with Pluronic^® F127 and propylene glycol as the surfactant and solubilizer, respectively. Upon dilution of the liquid lipid precursors, monodispersed submicron-sized particles with a slight negative charge formed spontaneously.

Results

Biological activity of entrapped NGF was assessed using pheochromocytoma cells with NGF-loaded reservoirs to induce significant neuronal outgrowth, similar to that seen in free NGF-treated controls. Finally, a 3.28-fold increase in inner ear bioavailability was observed after administration of phytantriol lipid-based crystalline nanoparticles as compared to free drug, contributing to an enhanced drug permeability of the round window membrane.

Conclusion

Data presented here demonstrate the potential of lipid-based crystalline nanoparticles to improve the outcomes of patients bearing cochlear implants.

Lipid-PEG conjugates sterically stabilize and reduce the toxicity of phytantriol-based lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles

Lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticle dispersions are of interest as delivery vectors for biomedicine. Aqueous dispersions of liposomes, cubosomes, and hexosomes are commonly stabilized by nonionic amphiphilic block copolymers to prevent flocculation and phase separation. Pluronic stabilizers such as F127 are commonly used; however, there is increasing interest in using chemically reactive stabilizers for enhanced functionalization and specificity in therapeutic delivery applications. This study has explored the ability of 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine conjugated with poly(ethylene glycol) (DSPE-PEGMW) (2000 Da ≤ MW ≤ 5000 Da) to engineer and stabilize phytantriol-based lyotropic liquid crystalline dispersions. The poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) moiety provides a tunable handle to the headgroup hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity to allow access to a range of nanoarchitectures in these systems. Specifically, it was observed that increasing PEG molecular weight promotes greater interfacial curvature of the dispersions, with liposomes (Lα) present at lower PEG molecular weight (MW 2000 Da), and a propensity for cubosomes (QII(P) or QII(D) phase) at MW 3400 Da or 5000 Da. In comparison to Pluronic F127-stabilized cubosomes, those made using DSPE-PEG3400 or DSPE-PEG5000 had enlarged internal water channels. The toxicity of these cubosomes was assessed in vitro using A549 and CHO cell lines, with cubosomes prepared using DSPE-PEG5000 having reduced cytotoxicity relative to their Pluronic F127-stabilized analogues.

Recent prospective of surface engineered Nanoparticles in the management of Neurodegenerative disorders

Clinically, the therapeutic outcomes in neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) by drug treatment are very limited, and the most insurmountable obstacle in the treatment of NDs is the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which provides the highest level of protection from xenobiotics. A great deal of attention still needs to be paid to overcome these barriers, and surface-engineered polymeric nanoparticles are emerging as innovative tools that are able to interact with the biological system at a molecular level for the desired response. The present review covers the potential importance of surface-structure-engineered nanoparticles to overcome the BBB for good bioavailability, and the evaluation of drug therapy in NDs.

Epidermal growth factor receptor-targeted lipid nanoparticles retain self-assembled nanostructures and provide high specificity

Next generation drug delivery utilising nanoparticles incorporates active targeting to specific sites. In this work, we combined targeting with the inherent advantages of self-assembled lipid nanoparticles containing internal nano-structures. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-targeting, PEGylated lipid nanoparticles using phytantriol and 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-PEG-maleimide amphiphiles were created. The self-assembled lipid nanoparticles presented here have internal lyotropic liquid crystalline nano-structures, verified by synchrotron small angle X-ray scattering and cryo-transmission electron microscopy, that offer the potential of high drug loading and enhanced cell penetration. Anti-EGFR Fab' fragments were conjugated to the surface of nanoparticles via a maleimide-thiol reaction at a high conjugation efficiency and retained specificity following conjugation to the nanoparticles. The conjugated nanoparticles were demonstrated to have high affinity for an EGFR target in a ligand binding assay.