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Van Poucke C, Verdegem E, Mangelinckx S, Stevens CV. Synthesis and unambiguous NMR characterization of linear and branched N-alkyl chitosan derivatives. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 337:122131. [PMID: 38710547 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Chitosan, sourced from abundant chitin-rich waste streams, emerges as a promising candidate in the realm of future functional materials and chemicals. While showing numerous advantageous properties, chitosan sometimes falls short of competing with today's non-renewable alternatives. Chemical derivatization, particularly through N-alkylation, proves promising in enhancing hydrophobic functionalities. This study synthesizes fifteen chitosan derivatives (degree of substitution = 2-10 %) using an improved reductive amination method. Next, selective depolymerization through acid hydrolysis reduced the chain rigidity imposed by the polymer backbone. This facilitated unambiguous structural characterization of the synthesized compounds using a combination of common NMR techniques. Two potential side reactions are identified for the first time, emphasizing the need for detailed structural information to unlock the true potential of these derivatives in future applications. HYPOTHESIS: The increase in chain mobility induced by the selective depolymerization of aliphatic N-alkyl chitosan derivatives allows for an unambiguous NMR characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casper Van Poucke
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Evert Verdegem
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sven Mangelinckx
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christian V Stevens
- Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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2
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Másson M. The quantitative molecular weight-antimicrobial activity relationship for chitosan polymers, oligomers, and derivatives. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 337:122159. [PMID: 38710574 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Chitosan and chitosan derivatives can kill pathogenic microorganisms including bacteria and fungi. The antimicrobial activity is dependent on the degree of acetylation, substituent structure, and molecular weight. Over the past four decades, numerous studies have endeavored to elucidate the relationship between molecular weight and the activity against microorganisms. However, investigators have reported divergent and, at times, conflicting conclusions. Here a bilinear equation is proposed, delineating the relationship between antimicrobial activity, defined as log (1/MIC), and the molecular weight of chitosan and chitosan derivatives. Three constants AMin, AMax, and CMW govern the shape of the curve determined by the equation. The constant AMin denotes the minimal activity expected as the molecular weight tends towards zero while AMax represents the maximal activity observed for molecular weights exceeding CMW, the critical molecular weight required for max activity. This equation was applied to analyze data from seven studies conducted between 1984 and 2019, which reported MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration) values against bacteria and fungi for various molecular weights of chitosan and its derivatives. All the 29 datasets exhibited a good fit (R2 ≥ 0.5) and half excellent (R2 ≥ 0.95) fit to the equation. The CMW generally ranged from 4 to 10 KD for datasets with an excellent fit to the equation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Már Másson
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Hagi, Hofsvallgata 53, 107 Reykajvík, Iceland.
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3
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Oral docetaxel delivery with cationic polymeric core-shell nanocapsules: In vitro and in vivo evaluation. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2023.104163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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4
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Teng Z, Meng LY, Yang JK, He Z, Chen XG, Liu Y. Bridging nanoplatform and vaccine delivery, a landscape of strategy to enhance nasal immunity. J Control Release 2022; 351:456-475. [PMID: 36174803 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.09.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Vaccination is an urgently needed and effective option to address epidemic, cancers, allergies, and other diseases. Nasal administration of vaccines offers many benefits over needle-based injection including high compliance and less risk of infection. Inactivated or attenuated vaccines as convention vaccine present potential risks of pathogenic virulence reversal, the focus of nasal vaccine development has shifted to the use of next-generation (subunit and nucleic acid) vaccines. However, subunit and nucleic acid vaccine intranasally have numerous challenges in development and utilization due to mucociliary clearance, mucosal epithelial tight junction, and enzyme/pH degradation. Nanoplatforms as ideal delivery systems, with the ability to enhance the retention, penetration, and uptake of nasal mucosa, shows great potential in improving immunogenic efficacy of nasal vaccine. This review provides an overview of delivery strategies for overcoming nasal barrier, including mucosal adhesion, mucus penetration, targeting of antigen presenting cells (APCs), enhancement of paracellular transportation. We discuss methods of enhancing antigen immunogenicity by nanoplatforms as immune-modulators or multi-antigen co-delivery. Meanwhile, we describe the application status and development prospect of nanoplatforms for nasal vaccine administration. Development of nanoplatforms for vaccine delivery via nasal route will facilitate large-scale and faster global vaccination, helping to address the threat of epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuang Teng
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, PR China
| | - Ling-Yang Meng
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, PR China
| | - Jian-Ke Yang
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, PR China
| | - Zheng He
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, PR China
| | - Xi-Guang Chen
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, PR China; Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266000, PR China
| | - Ya Liu
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, PR China.
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5
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Construction and Evaluation of Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles for Oral Administration of Exenatide in Type 2 Diabetic Rats. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14112181. [PMID: 35683851 PMCID: PMC9183037 DOI: 10.3390/polym14112181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral delivery of therapeutic peptides has been a daunting challenge due to poor transport across the tight junctions and susceptibility to enzymatic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. Numerous advancement in nanomedicine has been made for the effective delivery of protein and peptide. Owing to the superior performance of chitosan in opening intercellular tight junctions of epithelium and excellent mucoadhesive properties, chitosan-based nanocarriers have recently garnered considerable attention, which was formulated in this paper to orally deliver the GLP-1 drug (Exenatide). Against this backdrop, we used chitosan (CS) polymers to encapsulate the exenatide, sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) as the cross-linking agent and coated the exterior with sodium alginate (ALG) to impart the stability in an acidic environment. The chitosan/alginate nanoparticles (CS-TPP-ALG) functioned as a protective exenatide carrier, realized efficient cellular uptake and controlled release, leading to a steady hypoglycemic effect and a good oral bioavailability in vivo. Trimethyl chitosan (TMC), a chitosan derivative with stronger positive electrical properties was additionally selected as a substitute for chitosan to construct the TMC-TPP-ALG nanoparticle, and its oral peptide delivery capacity was explored in terms of both characterization and pharmacodynamics studies. Overall, our study demonstrated that functional chitosan/alginate nanoparticles can protect proteins from enzymatic degradation and enhance oral absorption, which presents important research value and application prospects.
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6
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Valente SA, Silva LM, Lopes GR, Sarmento B, Coimbra MA, Passos CP. Polysaccharide-based formulations as potential carriers for pulmonary delivery - A review of their properties and fates. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 277:118784. [PMID: 34893219 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Polysaccharides can be elite carriers for therapeutic molecules due to their versatility and low probability to trigger toxicity and immunogenic responses. Local and systemic therapies can be achieved through particle pulmonary delivery, a promising non-invasive alternative. Successful pulmonary delivery requires particles with appropriate flowability to reach alveoli and avoid premature clearance mechanisms. Polysaccharides can form micro-, nano-in-micro-, and large porous particles, aerogels, and hydrogels. Herein, the characteristics of polysaccharides used in drug formulations for pulmonary delivery are reviewed, providing insights into structure-function relationships. Charged polysaccharides can confer mucoadhesion, whereas the ability for specific sugar recognition may confer targeting capacity for alveolar macrophages. The method of particle preparation must be chosen considering the properties of the components and the delivery device to be utilized. The fate of polysaccharide-based carriers is dependent on enzyme-triggered hydrolytic and/or oxidative mechanisms, allowing their complete degradation and elimination through urine or reutilization of released monosaccharides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara A Valente
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Lisete M Silva
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Guido R Lopes
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Bruno Sarmento
- INEB - Institute of Biomedical Engineering Instituto, University of Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal; i3S - Institute for Research & Innovation in Health, University of Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal; CESPU - Institute for Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal
| | - Manuel A Coimbra
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Cláudia P Passos
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
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7
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Current trends in chitosan based nanopharmaceuticals for topical vaginal therapies. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 193:2140-2152. [PMID: 34780894 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Large surface area, rich vascularisation, well defined mucous membrane, balanced pH and relatively low enzymatic activity makes vagina a suitable site for drugs associated with women's health issues like Urinary tract infection (UTI) and vaginal infections. Therapeutic performance of intravaginal dosage forms largely depends on the properties of polymers and drugs. Chitosan (CS) because of its unique physical, chemical, pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical properties have received a great deal of attention as an essential component in vaginal drug delivery systems. Further the presence of free amino and hydroxyl groups on the chitosan skeleton allows easy derivatization under mild conditions to meet specific application requirements. Moreover, CS-based nanopharmaceuticals like nanoparticles, nanofiber, nanogel, nanofilm, liposomes and micelles are widely studied to improve therapeutic performance of vaginal formulations. However, susceptibility of CS to the acidic pH of vagina, poor loading of hydrophobic drugs, rapid mucosal turn over are the key issues need to be addressed for successful outcomes. In this review, we have discussed the application of CS and CS derivatives in vaginal drug delivery and also highlight the recent progress in chitosan based nanocarrier platforms in terms of their limitations and potentials.
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8
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Yan D, Li Y, Liu Y, Li N, Zhang X, Yan C. Antimicrobial Properties of Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives in the Treatment of Enteric Infections. Molecules 2021; 26:7136. [PMID: 34885715 PMCID: PMC8659174 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26237136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibiotics played an important role in controlling the development of enteric infection. However, the emergence of antibiotic resistance and gut dysbiosis led to a growing interest in the use of natural antimicrobial agents as alternatives for therapy and disinfection. Chitosan is a nontoxic natural antimicrobial polymer and is approved by GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration). Chitosan and chitosan derivatives can kill microbes by neutralizing negative charges on the microbial surface. Besides, chemical modifications give chitosan derivatives better water solubility and antimicrobial property. This review gives an overview of the preparation of chitosan, its derivatives, and the conjugates with other polymers and nanoparticles with better antimicrobial properties, explains the direct and indirect mechanisms of action of chitosan, and summarizes current treatment for enteric infections as well as the role of chitosan and chitosan derivatives in the antimicrobial agents in enteric infections. Finally, we suggested future directions for further research to improve the treatment of enteric infections and to develop more useful chitosan derivatives and conjugates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Chen Yan
- The Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong 637000, China; (D.Y.); (Y.L.); (Y.L.); (N.L.); (X.Z.)
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9
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Advancedoral vaccine delivery strategies for improving the immunity. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 177:113928. [PMID: 34411689 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.113928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Infectious diseases continue to inflict a high global disease burden. The consensus is that vaccination is the most effective option against infectious diseases. Oral vaccines have unique advantages in the prevention of global pandemics due to their ease of use, high compliance, low cost, and the ability to induce both systemic and mucosal immune responses. However, challenges of adapting vaccines for oral administration remain significant. Foremost among these are enzymatic and pH-dependent degradation of antigens in the stomach and intestines, the low permeability of mucus barrier, the nonspecific uptake of antigens at the intestinal mucosal site, and the immune suppression result from the elusive immune tolerance mechanisms. Innovative delivery techniques promise great potential for improving the flexibility and efficiency of oral vaccines. A better understanding of the delivery approaches and the immunological mechanisms of oral vaccine delivery systems may provide new scientific insight and tools for developing the next-generation oral vaccine. Here, an overview of the advanced technologies in the field of oral vaccination is proposed, including mucus-penetrating nanoparticle (NP), mucoadhesive delivery vehicles, targeting antigen-presenting cell (APC) nanocarriers and enhanced paracellular delivery strategies and so on. Meanwhile, the mechanisms of delivery vectors interact with mucosal barriers are discussed.
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10
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Translation of pulmonary protein therapy from bench to bedside: Addressing the bioavailability challenges. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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11
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Rathinam S, Hjálmarsdóttir MÁ, Thygesen MB, Másson M. Chitotriazolan (poly(β(1-4)-2-(1H-1,2,3-triazol-1-yl)-2-deoxy-d-glucose)) derivatives: Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of antibacterial activity. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 267:118162. [PMID: 34119136 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Here we describe the first synthesis of a new type of polysaccharides derived from chitosan. In these structures, the 2-amino group on the pyranose ring was quantitively replaced by an aromatic 1,2,3-triazole moiety. The 2-amino group of chitosan and di-TBDMS chitosan was converted into an azide by diazo transfer reaction. The chitosan azide and TBDMS-chitosan azide were poorly soluble but could be fully converted to triazoles by "copper-catalysed Huisgen cycloaddition" in DMF or DMSO. The reaction could be done with different alkynes but derivatives lacking cationic or anionic groups were poorly soluble or insoluble in tested aqueous and organic solvents. Derivatives with N,N-dimethylaminomethyl, N,N,N-trimethylammoniummethyl, sulfonmethyl, and phosphomethyl groups linked to the 4-position of the triazole moiety were soluble in water at neutral or basic conditions and could be analyzed by 1H, 13C APT, COSY, and HSQC NMR. The quaternized cationic chitotriazolan's had high activity against S. aureus and E. coli, whereas the anionic chitotriazolan's lacked activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sankar Rathinam
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Hofsvallagata 53, IS-107 Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Martha Á Hjálmarsdóttir
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Hringbraut 31, IS-101 Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Mikkel B Thygesen
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Már Másson
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Hofsvallagata 53, IS-107 Reykjavík, Iceland.
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12
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Chitosan quaternary ammonium salt induced mitochondrial membrane permeability transition pore opening study in a spectroscopic perspective. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 165:314-320. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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13
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An Overview of Current Knowledge on the Properties, Synthesis and Applications of Quaternary Chitosan Derivatives. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12122878. [PMID: 33266285 PMCID: PMC7759937 DOI: 10.3390/polym12122878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chitosan, a chitin-derivative polysaccharide, known for its non-toxicity, biocompatibility and biodegradability, presents limited applications due to its low solubility in neutral or basic pH medium. Quaternization stands out as an alternative to modify this natural polymer, aiming to improve its solubility over a wide pH range and, consequently, expand its range of applications. Quaternization occurs by introducing a quaternary ammonium moiety onto or outside the chitosan backbone, via chemical reactions with primary amino and hydroxyl groups, under vast experimental conditions. The oldest and most common forms of quaternized chitosan involve N,N,N-trimethyl chitosan (TMC) and N-[(2-hydroxy-3-trimethyl ammonium) propyl] chitosan (HTCC) and, more recently, quaternized chitosan by insertion of pyridinium or phosphonium salts. By modifying chitosan through the insertion of a quaternary moiety, permanent cationic charges on the polysaccharide backbone are achieved and properties such as water solubility, antimicrobial activity, mucoadhesiveness and permeability are significantly improved, enabling the application mainly in the biomedical and pharmaceutical areas. In this review, the main quaternized chitosan compounds are addressed in terms of their structure, properties, synthesis routes and applications. In addition, other less explored compounds are also presented, involving the main findings and future prospects regarding the field of quaternized chitosans.
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14
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Paula HCB, Silva RBC, Santos CM, Dantas FDS, de Paula RCM, de Lima LRM, de Oliveira EF, Figueiredo EAT, Dias FGB. Eco-friendly synthesis of an alkyl chitosan derivative. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 163:1591-1598. [PMID: 32791282 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Chitosan (CH) was N-alkylated via Schiff base formation and further reduced via sodium borohydride. The reaction was carried out at room temperature, in a homogeneous aqueous medium, using as a source of alkyl group an essential oil (Eucalyptus staigeriana) containing an unsaturated aldehyde (3,7-dimethylocta-2,6-dienal). Derivatives were characterized by Infrared Spectroscopy, proton and carbon Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, XRD, particle size distribution and zeta potential. Chitosan hydrophobization evidence was given by FTIR as new bands at 2929 cm-1 due to methyl groups, along with the presence of strong band at 1580 cm-1 owing to N substitution. Moreover, carbon and proton NMR corroborated the insertion of methyl groups in chitosan backbone. The degree of substitution was found to be in the range 0.69-1.44. X-ray diffractograms revealed that the insertion of alkyl substituents in chitosan backbone led to a less crystalline material. Data from antibacterial activity revealed that chitosan and derivatives were effective against Gram-positive bacteria, whereby derivatives exhibited greater inhibitory effect than CH. Derivatives are likely candidates for use as carriers for active principles of interest of food, pharmacy and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haroldo C B Paula
- Post-Graduation in Chemistry Program, Building 940, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60455-760, Ceará, Brazil.
| | - Rudson B C Silva
- Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Building 940, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60455-760, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Clara M Santos
- Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Building 940, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60455-760, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Francisco D S Dantas
- Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Building 940, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60455-760, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Regina C M de Paula
- Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Building 940, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60455-760, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Laís R M de Lima
- Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Building 940, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60455-760, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Erick F de Oliveira
- Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Building 940, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60455-760, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Evânia A T Figueiredo
- Department of Food Science and Technology-DETAL, Building 858, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60356-000, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Flayanna G B Dias
- Department of Food Science and Technology-DETAL, Building 858, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza 60356-000, Ceará, Brazil
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15
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Quaternary Ammonium Chitosans: The Importance of the Positive Fixed Charge of the Drug Delivery Systems. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21186617. [PMID: 32927715 PMCID: PMC7555869 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
As a natural polysaccharide, chitosan has good biocompatibility, biodegradability and biosecurity. The hydroxyl and amino groups present in its structure make it an extremely versatile and chemically modifiable material. In recent years, various synthetic strategies have been used to modify chitosan, mainly to solve the problem of its insolubility in neutral physiological fluids. Thus, derivatives with negative or positive fixed charge were synthesized and used to prepare innovative drug delivery systems. Positively charged conjugates showed improved properties compared to unmodified chitosan. In this review the main quaternary ammonium derivatives of chitosan will be considered, their preparation and their applications will be described to evaluate the impact of the positive fixed charge on the improvement of the properties of the drug delivery systems based on these polymers. Furthermore, the performances of the proposed systems resulting from in vitro and ex vivo experiments will be taken into consideration, with particular attention to cytotoxicity of systems, and their ability to promote drug absorption.
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16
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Chu L, Zhang Y, Feng Z, Yang J, Tian Q, Yao X, Zhao X, Tan H, Chen Y. Synthesis and application of a series of amphipathic chitosan derivatives and the corresponding magnetic nanoparticle-embedded polymeric micelles. Carbohydr Polym 2019; 223:114966. [PMID: 31426997 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic nanoparticle-embedded polymeric micelles (MNP-PMs) prepared with amphipathic polymers are an important sustained-release carrier for hydrophobic drugs. The amphipathic chitosan derivatives (ACDs) based stimuli-responsive slow-release carriers have attracted considerable attentions because of the bioactivities and modifiability of chitosan. In the current study, a series of ACDs including alkylated N-(2-hydroxy) propyl-3-trimethyl ammonium chitosan chloride (alkyl-HTCC) and alkylated polyethylene glycol N-(2-hydroxy) propyl-3-trimethyl ammonium chitosan chloride (alkyl-PEG-HTCC) were prepared by the reductive amination of HTCC and PEG-HTCC, and their structures and properties were characterized. Octyl-HTCC/O-Fe3O4 and octyl-PEG-HTCC/O-Fe3O4 MNP-PMs were prepared by the hydrophobic interactions between the corresponding ACDs and oil soluble Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles (O-Fe3O4 MNPs), and characterized for the structure, magnetic performance and surface charge state. Their potential application as a drug delivery carrier was investigated upon the embedding efficiency and pH dependent sustained-release performance using the hydrophobic drug, paclitaxel (PTX), as a model drug. Our work has provided a new application strategy of ACDs in the multi-functional drug delivery carrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liqiu Chu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, PR China; China Petrochemical Beijing Chemical Industry Research Institute, Beijing 100013, PR China
| | - Yutong Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, PR China; Technical University of Denmark, Kgs, Lyngby, 2800, Denmark
| | - Zhipan Feng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, PR China
| | - Jueying Yang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, PR China
| | - Qingquan Tian
- National Engineering & Technology Research Center for Paper Chemicals, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 311300, PR China
| | - Xianping Yao
- National Engineering & Technology Research Center for Paper Chemicals, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 311300, PR China
| | - Xinqi Zhao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, PR China
| | - Huimin Tan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, PR China
| | - Yu Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, PR China.
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17
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Ghadiri M, Young PM, Traini D. Strategies to Enhance Drug Absorption via Nasal and Pulmonary Routes. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:pharmaceutics11030113. [PMID: 30861990 PMCID: PMC6470976 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11030113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
New therapeutic agents such as proteins, peptides, and nucleic acid-based agents are being developed every year, making it vital to find a non-invasive route such as nasal or pulmonary for their administration. However, a major concern for some of these newly developed therapeutic agents is their poor absorption. Therefore, absorption enhancers have been investigated to address this major administration problem. This paper describes the basic concepts of transmucosal administration of drugs, and in particular the use of the pulmonary or nasal routes for administration of drugs with poor absorption. Strategies for the exploitation of absorption enhancers for the improvement of pulmonary or nasal administration are discussed, including use of surfactants, cyclodextrins, protease inhibitors, and tight junction modulators, as well as application of carriers such as liposomes and nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maliheh Ghadiri
- Respiratory Technology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research and Discipline of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Paul M Young
- Respiratory Technology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research and Discipline of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Daniela Traini
- Respiratory Technology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research and Discipline of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia.
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18
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He H, Lu Y, Qi J, Zhu Q, Chen Z, Wu W. Adapting liposomes for oral drug delivery. Acta Pharm Sin B 2019; 9:36-48. [PMID: 30766776 PMCID: PMC6362257 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2018.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 333] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Liposomes mimic natural cell membranes and have long been investigated as drug carriers due to excellent entrapment capacity, biocompatibility and safety. Despite the success of parenteral liposomes, oral delivery of liposomes is impeded by various barriers such as instability in the gastrointestinal tract, difficulties in crossing biomembranes, and mass production problems. By modulating the compositions of the lipid bilayers and adding polymers or ligands, both the stability and permeability of liposomes can be greatly improved for oral drug delivery. This review provides an overview of the challenges and current approaches toward the oral delivery of liposomes.
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Key Words
- APC, antigen-presenting cell
- AUC, area under curve
- Absorption
- BSA, bovine serum albumin
- Bioavailability
- DC, dendritic cells
- DMPC, dimyristoyl phosphatidyl choline
- DPPC, dipalmitoyl phosphotidylcholine
- Drug delivery
- FAE, follicle-associated epithelia
- FITC, fluorescein isothiocyannate
- GIT, gastrointestinal tract
- LUV, large unilamellar vesicles
- Liposomes
- MLV, multilamellar vesicles
- MRT, mean residence time
- MVL, multivesicular liposomes
- Oral
- PC, phosphatidylcholine
- PEG, polyethylene glycol
- RES, reticulo-endothelial
- SC, sodium cholate
- SDC, sodium deoxycholate
- SGC, sodium glycocholate
- SPC, soy phosphatidylcholine
- STC, sodium taurocholate
- SUV, small unilamellar vesicles
- Stability
- TPGS, tocopherol polyethylene glycol succinate
- Tgel, gelling temperature
- Tp, phase transition temperature
- UEA 1, ulex europaeus agglutinin 1
- WGA, wheat germ agglutinin
- rhEGF, recombinant human epithelial growth factor
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Affiliation(s)
- Haisheng He
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE and PLA, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yi Lu
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE and PLA, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
- Shanghai Dermatology Hospital, Shanghai 200443, China
| | - Jianping Qi
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE and PLA, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
- Shanghai Dermatology Hospital, Shanghai 200443, China
| | - Quangang Zhu
- Shanghai Dermatology Hospital, Shanghai 200443, China
| | | | - Wei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE and PLA, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
- Shanghai Dermatology Hospital, Shanghai 200443, China
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19
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Song H, Wu H, Li S, Tian H, Li Y, Wang J. Homogeneous Synthesis of Cationic Chitosan via New Avenue. Molecules 2018; 23:E1921. [PMID: 30071648 PMCID: PMC6222707 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23081921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Using a solvent formed of alkali and urea, chitosan was successfully dissolved in a new solvent via the freezing⁻thawing process. Subsequently, quaternized chitosan (QC) was synthesized using 3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (CHPTAC) as the cationic reagent under different incubation times and temperatures in a homogeneous system. QCs cannot be synthesized at temperatures above 60 °C, as gel formation will occur. The structure and properties of the prepared QC were characterized and quaternary groups were comfirmed to be successfully incorporated onto chitosan backbones. The degree of substitution (DS) ranged from 16.5% to 46.8% and the yields ranged from 32.6% to 89.7%, which can be adjusted by changing the molar ratio of the chitosan unit to CHPTAC and the reaction time. QCs inhibits the growth of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris effectively. Thus, this work offers a simple and green method of functionalizing chitosan and producing quaternized chitosan with an antibacterial effect for potential applications in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanlu Song
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Beijing Technology & Business University (BTBU), Beijing 100048, China.
| | - Hao Wu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Beijing Technology & Business University (BTBU), Beijing 100048, China.
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China.
| | - ShuJing Li
- Beijing Key Lab of Plant Resource Research and Development, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China.
| | - Huafeng Tian
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Quality Evaluation Technology for Hygiene and Safety of Plastics, Beijing Technology and Business University (BTBU), Beijing 100048, China.
| | - YanRu Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China.
| | - JianGuo Wang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Beijing Technology & Business University (BTBU), Beijing 100048, China.
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China.
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20
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N-mercapto acetyl-N′-octyl-O, N″-glycol chitosan as an efficiency oral delivery system of paclitaxel. Carbohydr Polym 2018; 181:477-488. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.10.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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21
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Martins DB, Nasário FD, Silva-Gonçalves LC, de Oliveira Tiera VA, Arcisio-Miranda M, Tiera MJ, dos Santos Cabrera MP. Chitosan derivatives targeting lipid bilayers: Synthesis, biological activity and interaction with model membranes. Carbohydr Polym 2018; 181:1213-1223. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Revised: 10/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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22
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Preparation and Characterization of Novel Cationic Chitosan Derivatives Bearing Quaternary Ammonium and Phosphonium Salts and Assessment of Their Antifungal Properties. Molecules 2017; 22:molecules22091438. [PMID: 28858241 PMCID: PMC6151502 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22091438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Chitosan is an abundant and renewable polysaccharide, its derivatives exhibit attractive bioactivities and the wide applications in various biomedical fields. In this paper, two novel cationic chitosan derivatives modified with quaternary phosphonium salts were successfully synthesized via trimethylation, chloride acetylation, and quaternization with tricyclohexylphosphine and triphenylphosphine. The structures and properties of synthesized products in the reactions were characterized by FTIR spectroscopy, 1H-NMR, 31P-NMR, elemental and thermogravimetric analysis. The antifungal activities of chitosan derivatives against four kinds of phytopathogens, including Phomopsis asparagi, Watermelon fusarium, Colletotrichum lagenarium, and Fusarium oxysporum were tested using the radial growth assay in vitro. The results revealed that the synthesized cationic chitosan derivatives showed significantly improved antifungal efficiency compared to chitosan. It was reasonably suggested that quaternary phosphonium groups enabled the obviously stronger antifungal activity of the synthesized chitosans. Especially, the triphenylphosphonium-functionalized chitosan derivative inhibited the growth of Phomopsis asparagi most effectively, with inhibitory indices of about 80% at 0.5 mg/mL. Moreover, the data demonstrated that the substituted groups with stronger electron-withdrawing ability relatively possessed greater antifungal activity. The results suggest the possibility that cationic chitosan derivatives bearing quaternary phosphonium salts could be effectively employed as novel antifungal biomaterials for application in the field of agriculture.
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23
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LogithKumar R, KeshavNarayan A, Dhivya S, Chawla A, Saravanan S, Selvamurugan N. A review of chitosan and its derivatives in bone tissue engineering. Carbohydr Polym 2016; 151:172-188. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.05.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 328] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2016] [Revised: 04/24/2016] [Accepted: 05/15/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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24
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Wang X, Wang N, Yuan L, Li N, Wang J, Yang X. Exploring tight junction alteration using double fluorescent probe combination of lanthanide complex with gold nanoclusters. Sci Rep 2016; 6:32218. [PMID: 27574102 PMCID: PMC5004201 DOI: 10.1038/srep32218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Tight junctions play a key role in restricting or regulating passage of liquids, ions and large solutes through various biological barriers by the paracellular route. Changes in paracellular permeation indicate alteration of the tight junction. However, it is very difficult to obtain the structural change information by measuring paracellular flux based on transepithelial electrical resistance or using fluorescein-labeled dextrans. Here we show that the BSA and GSH stabilized gold nanoclusters exhibit marginal cytotoxicity and pass through the MDCK monolayer exclusively through the paracellular pathway. We propose a double fluorescence probe strategy, the combination of a proven paracellular indicator (europium complex) with fluorescent gold nanoclusters. We calculate changes of structural parameters in tight junctions based on determination of the diffusion coefficients of the probes. Two different types of tight junction openers are used to validate our strategy. Results show that EDTA disrupts tight junction structures and induces large and smooth paracellular pore paths with an average radius of 17 nm, but vanadyl complexes induce paths with the radius of 6 nm. The work suggests that the double fluorescence probe strategy is a useful and convenient approach for in vitro investigation of tight junction structural alternations caused by pharmacological or pathological events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Wang
- Department of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.,College of Sciences, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110161, China
| | - Na Wang
- Department of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.,Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
| | - Lan Yuan
- Department of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Na Li
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS), The Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Junxia Wang
- Department of Molecular Biology, Hebei Key Lab of Laboratory Animal, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
| | - Xiaoda Yang
- Department of Chemical Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
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25
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Xu S, Xue X, You K, Fu J. Caveolin-1 regulates the expression of tight junction proteins during hyperoxia-induced pulmonary epithelial barrier breakdown. Respir Res 2016; 17:50. [PMID: 27176222 PMCID: PMC4866358 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-016-0364-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a common complication in preterm infants that involves the downregulation of tight junction (TJ) proteins. However, the mechanism underlying downregulation of the expression of TJ proteins during at the early stages of hyperoxia-induced BPD remains to be understood. Here, we aimed to identify the role of caveolin-1 (Cav-1) in hyperoxia-induced pulmonary epithelial barrier breakdown. METHODS First, we established an in vitro pulmonary epithelial barrier models using primary type II alveolar epithelial cells (AEC-II) from newborn rats. AEC-II was assigned to the hyperoxic (85 % O2/5 % CO2) or normoxic (21 % O2/5 % CO2) groups. Second, AEC-II was transfected with Cav-1-siRNA to downregulate Cav-1 under normoxic exposure. Third, AEC-II was transfected with a cDNA encoding Cav-1 to upregulate Cav-1 expression under hyperoxic exposure. Then, expression levels of Cav-1 and TJ proteins were examined by immunofluorescence staining, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and Western blotting. The TJ structures visualized using a transmission electron microscope, and transepithelial resistance and apparent permeability coefficient of fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran, which are indicators of barrier function, were measured. RESULTS Our data showed that exposure to hyperoxia disrupted the structure and function of the pulmonary epithelial barrier and decreased the ZO-1, occludin, claudin-4, and Cav-1 expression levels. Moreover, Cav-1 knockdown attenuated the expression of the other three genes and disrupted pulmonary epithelial barrier structure and function under normoxic exposure. However, Cav-1 upregulation markedly antagonized the hyperoxia-induced pulmonary epithelial barrier destruction and TJ protein loss. CONCLUSIONS This is the first study to present evidence illustrating the novel role of Cav-1 downregulation-mediated TJ protein loss in pulmonary epithelial barrier destruction during BPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyan Xu
- Department of Pediatrics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110004, Liaoning, China
| | - Xindong Xue
- Department of Pediatrics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110004, Liaoning, China
| | - Kai You
- Department of Pediatrics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110004, Liaoning, China
| | - Jianhua Fu
- Department of Pediatrics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110004, Liaoning, China.
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26
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Sahariah P, Benediktssdóttir BE, Hjálmarsdóttir MÁ, Sigurjonsson OE, Sørensen KK, Thygesen MB, Jensen KJ, Másson M. Impact of Chain Length on Antibacterial Activity and Hemocompatibility of Quaternary N-Alkyl and N,N-Dialkyl Chitosan Derivatives. Biomacromolecules 2015; 16:1449-60. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.5b00163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Sahariah
- Faculty
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Hofsvallagata 53, IS-107 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Berglind E. Benediktssdóttir
- Faculty
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Hofsvallagata 53, IS-107 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Martha Á. Hjálmarsdóttir
- Department
of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Stapi, Hringbraut 31, 101 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Olafur E. Sigurjonsson
- The
REModeL Lab, The Blood Bank, Landspitali University Hospital, Snorrabraut 60, 105 Reykjavik, Iceland
- Institute
of Biomedical and Neural Engineering, Reykjavik University, Menntavegur
1, 101, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Kasper K. Sørensen
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Centre for Carbohydrate Recognition
and Signalling, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Fredriksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mikkel B. Thygesen
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Centre for Carbohydrate Recognition
and Signalling, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Fredriksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Knud J. Jensen
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Centre for Carbohydrate Recognition
and Signalling, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Fredriksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Már Másson
- Faculty
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, Hofsvallagata 53, IS-107 Reykjavik, Iceland
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