Nicotine hydrogen tartrate loaded chitosan nanoparticles: Formulation, characterization and in vitro delivery from dry powder inhaler formulation

Inhaled Ivermectin-Loaded Lipid Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles: Development and Characterization

Ivermectin (IVM), a drug originally used for treating parasitic infections, is being explored for its potential applications in cancer therapy. Despite the promising anti-cancer effects of IVM, its low water solubility limits its bioavailability and, consequently, its biological efficacy as an oral formulation. To overcome this challenge, our research focused on developing IVM-loaded lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) designed for potential pulmonary administration. IVM-loaded LPHNPs were developed using the emulsion solvent evaporation method and characterized in terms of particle size, morphology, entrapment efficiency, and release pattern. Solid phase characterization was investigated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Using a Twin stage impinger (TSI) attached to a device, aerosolization properties of the developed LPHNPs were studied at a flow rate of 60 L/min, and IVM was determined by a validated HPLC method. IVM-loaded LPHNPs demonstrated spherical-shaped particles between 302 and 350 nm. Developed formulations showed an entrapment efficiency between 68 and 80% and a sustained 50 to 60% IVM release pattern within 96 h. Carr's index (CI), Hausner ratio (HR), and angle of repose (θ) indicated proper flowability of the fabricated LPHNPs. The in vitro aerosolization analysis revealed fine particle fractions (FPFs) ranging from 18.53% to 24.77%. This in vitro study demonstrates the potential of IVM-loaded LPHNPs as a delivery vehicle through the pulmonary route.

Stability of Inhaled Ciprofloxacin-Loaded Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) Nanoparticle Dry Powder Inhaler Formulation in High Stressed Conditions

In this study, the stability of ciprofloxacin (CIP)-loaded poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (PEtOx) nanoparticles (NPs) was investigated at normal and high stressed conditions. The blank NPs were used to understand the intrinsic physicochemical properties of the polymer NPs under these storage conditions. The formulated NPs were prepared by a coassembly reaction and dried by lyophilization. The powder NPs were stored at controlled room temperature (25 °C) with normal relative humidity (RH) (43%) and high temperature (40 °C) and RH (75%). The stored samples were analyzed by determining the particle sizes, morphology, solid-state properties, thermal behavior, drug-polymer interactions, and aerosol performances over six months. The chemical stability of the formulations was determined by X-ray diffraction, attenuated total refection-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) over six months under both conditions. The particle size of the blank PEtOx NPs significantly (p < 0.05) increased from 195.4 nm to 202.7 nm after 3 months at 40 °C/75% RH due to the moisture absorption from high RH; however, no significant increase was observed afterward. On the other hand, the sizes of CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs significantly (p < 0.05) reduced from 200.2 nm to 126.3 nm after 6 months at 40 °C/75% RH. In addition, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed that the surfaces of CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs become smoother after 3 months of storage due to the decay of surface drugs compared to the freshly prepared NPs. However, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images could not provide much information on drug decay from the nanoparticle’s surfaces. The fine particle fraction (FPF) of CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs dropped significantly (p < 0.05) after three months at 25 °C/43% RH and 40 °C/75% RH conditions. The reduced FPF of CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs occurred due to the drug decay from the polymeric surface and blank PEtOx NPs due to the aggregations of the NPs at high temperatures and RH. Although the aerosolization properties of the prepared CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs were reduced, all formulations were chemically stable in the experimental conditions.

Synthesis, Characterization and In Vitro Evaluation of Chitosan Nanoparticles Physically Admixed with Lactose Microspheres for Pulmonary Delivery of Montelukast

This study aimed to synthesise montelukast-loaded polymeric nanoparticles via the ionic gelation method using chitosan as a natural polymer and tripolyphosphate as a crosslinking agent. Tween 80, hyaluronic acid and leucine were added to modify the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles, reduce the nanoparticles’ uptake by alveolar macrophages and improve powder aerosolisation, respectively. The nanoparticles ranged from 220 nm to 383 nm with a polydispersity index of ≤0.50. The zeta potential of nanoparticles ranged from 11 mV to 22 mV, with a drug association efficiency of 46–86%. The simple chitosan nanoparticles (F2) were more spherical in comparison to other formulations (F4–F6), while the roughness of hyaluronic acid (F5) and leucine (F6) added formulations was significantly high er than F2 and Tween 80 added formulation (F4). The DSC and FTIR analysis depict that the physical and chemical properties of the drug were preserved. The release of the drugs from nanoparticles was more sustained in the case of F5 and F6 when compared to F2 and F4 due to the additional coating of hyaluronic acid and leucine. The nanoparticles were amorphous and cohesive and prone to exhalation due to their small size. Therefore, nanoparticles were admixed with lactose microspheres to reduce particle agglomeration and improve powder dispersion from a dry powder inhaler (DPI). The DPI formulations achieved a dispersed fraction of 75 to 90%, a mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of 1–2 µm and a fine particle fraction (FPF) of 28–83% when evaluated using the Anderson cascade impactor from Handihaler®. Overall, the montelukast-loaded nanoparticles physically admixed with lactose microspheres achieved optimum deposition in the deep lung for potential application in asthmatic patients.

Preparation and evaluation of pirfenidone loaded chitosan nanoparticles pulmonary delivery for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Background

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic and fatal disorder caused by abnormal extracellular matrix deposition, which results in increasing dyspnea and loss of pulmonary function. Pirfenidone (PFD) has antifibrotic properties that have been approved by the US FDA for the treatment of IPF. Pirfenidone is currently delivered orally, which has drawbacks like reduced bioavailability in the presence of food, gastrointestinal (dyspepsia and anorexia), and dermatological (photosensitivity) side-effects, large amount of dose, and elimination half-life of 2.4 h. This study aimed was to prepare inhalable powders containing PFD-loaded chitosan nanoparticles for sustained delivery of the drug to the lung.

Result

The quasi-solvent diffusion method was used with optimized 100 mg PFD and 100 mg chitosan (CS). An in-vitro drug release research found that increasing the amount of chitosan reduced the rate of drug release from nanoparticles. Entrapment of PFD into chitosan nanoparticles decreased with the increased concentration of stabilizer concentration. All batches produced nanoparticles with a spherical morphology confirmed by SEM and sizes ranging from 239.3 ± 1.8 to 928.7 ± 4.6 nm. The optimized nanoparticles exhibited a mean particle size of 467.33 ± 7.8 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.127 ± 0.022, zeta potential of + 34.8 ± 1.6 mV, % entrapment efficiency (39.45 ± 4.63%), % drug release after 12 h (94.78 ± 2.88%), and in-vitro deposition (81.49%). Results showed that the obtained powders had different aerosolization properties. The particle size of nanoparticles reduced, and the process yield, extra-fine particle fraction, geometric standard diameter, and fine particle fraction increased significantly. Stability study showed, there are no aggregation observed and stable for six month study.

Conclusion

Prepared pirfenidone-loaded chitosan nanoparticles can be result of 6 months of stability studies that give details that there was no significant aggregation of PFD-loaded CS NPs and the spherical shape particle with smooth surface as per SEM studies. Hence, PFD-loaded CS NPs can be a suitable alternative to the currently available therapy.

Graphical abstract

Inhaled ciprofloxacin-loaded poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) nanoparticles from dry powder inhaler formulation for the potential treatment of lower respiratory tract infections

Lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) are one of the fatal diseases of the lungs that have severe impacts on public health and the global economy. The currently available antibiotics administered orally for the treatment of LRTIs need high doses with frequent administration and cause dose-related adverse effects. To overcome this problem, we investigated the development of ciprofloxacin (CIP) loaded poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (PEtOx) nanoparticles (NPs) for potential pulmonary delivery from dry powder inhaler (DPI) formulations against LRTIs. NPs were prepared using a straightforward co-assembly reaction carried out by the intermolecular hydrogen bonding among PEtOx, tannic acid (TA), and CIP. The prepared NPs were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), powder X-ray diffraction analysis (PXRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The CIP was determined by validated HPLC and UV spectrophotometry methods. The CIP loading into the PEtOx was between 21-67% and increased loading was observed with the increasing concentration of CIP. The NP sizes of PEtOx with or without drug loading were between 196-350 nm and increased with increasing drug loading. The in vitro CIP release showed the maximum cumulative release of about 78% in 168 h with a burst release of 50% in the first 12 h. The kinetics of CIP release from NPs followed non-Fickian or anomalous transport thus suggesting the drug release was regulated by both diffusion and polymer degradation. The in vitro aerosolization study carried out using a Twin Stage Impinger (TSI) at 60 L/min air flow showed the fine particle fraction (FPF) between 34.4% and 40.8%. The FPF was increased with increased drug loading. The outcome of this study revealed the potential of the polymer PEtOx as a carrier for developing CIP-loaded PEtOx NPs as DPI formulation for pulmonary delivery against LRTIs.

Pharmacokinetic variables of medium molecular weight cross linked chitosan nanoparticles to enhance the bioavailability of 5-fluorouracil and reduce the acute oral toxicity

To prepare glutaraldehyde-based cross-linked medium molecular weight chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated with 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU), to overcome dosing frequency as well as reducing acute oral toxicity and poor bioavailability of the drug. Medium molecular weight chitosan nanoparticles (MMWCH-NPs) were prepared by reverse micelles method based on glutaraldehyde (GA) cross-linking and optimized by the process as well as formulation variables like a various drug to polymer ratio, cross-linker volumes, varying stirring speeds (rpm), different time of rotation/stirring, respectively and their effects on the mean particles size distribution and entrapment efficiency %EE and %LC of NPs. Characterization of formulations was done by FTIR studies, TEM, PXRD, TGA, Stability, and dissolution drug release studies were performed by dialysis bag technique at both pH (1.2 & 7.4) and acute oral toxicity studies in albino rabbits. The formulated nanoparticles showed a smooth morphology with smaller particle size distribution (230-550 nm), zeta potential (-15 to -18 mV) required to achieve enhanced permeation and retention effect (EPR), entrapment efficiency (%EE 12-59%). These NPs exhibited a controlled drug release profile with 84.36% of the drug over a period of 24 h. Drug release data were fitted to different kinetic models which predominantly followed Fickian diffusion mechanism (R2 = 0.972-0.976, N = 0.326-0.256). The optimized formulation (5-FU6) was observed under DSC/TGA, TEM. PXRD curves, FTIR, which confirmed thermal stability, structural integrity, amorphous state, compatibility between drug and polymer of optimized (5-FU6) as well as reduced acute oral toxicity in albino rabbits. Cross-linked medium molecular weight chitosan nanoparticles are nontoxic, well-tolerated therefore could be the future candidate for therapeutic effects as novel drug delivery carrier for anticancer drug(s).

Inhaled Edoxaban dry powder inhaler formulations: Development, characterization and their effects on the coagulopathy associated with COVID-19 infection

Herein, we demonstrated the development and characterization of a dry powder inhaler (DPI) formulation of edoxaban (EDX); and investigated the in-vitro anticoagulation effect for the management of pulmonary or cerebral coagulopathy associated with COVID-19 infection. The formulations were prepared by mixing the inhalable micronized drug with a large carrier lactose and dispersibility enhancers, leucine, and magnesium stearate. The drug-excipient interaction was studied using X-Ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) methods. The drug and excipients showed no physical inter particulate interaction. The in-vitro drug aerosolization from the developed formulation was determined by a Twin Stage Impinger (TSI) at a flow rate of 60 ± 5 L /min. The amount of drug deposition was quantified by an established HPLC-UV method. The fine particle fraction (FPF) of EDX API from drug alone formulation was 7%, whereas the formulations with excipients increased dramatically to almost 7-folds up to 47%. The developed DPI formulation of EDX showed a promising in-vitro anticoagulation effect at a very low concentration. This novel DPI formulation of EDX could be a potential and effective inhalation therapy for managing pulmonary venous thromboembolism (VTE) associated with COVID-19 infection. Further studies are warranted to investigate the toxicity and clinical application of the inhaled EDX DPI formulation.

Docetaxel-Loaded Cholesterol-PEG Co-Modified Poly (n-Butyl) Cyanoacrylate Nanoparticles for Antitumor Drug Pulmonary Delivery: Preparation, Characterization, and in vivo Evaluation

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) have received much attention as promising carrier systems in lung cancer and brain metastases.

METHODS

Here, for the first time, we investigated the feasibility of using inhaled cholesterol-PEG co-modified poly (n-butyl) cyanoacrylate NPs (CLS-PEG NPs) of docetaxel (DTX) for sustained pulmonary drug delivery in cancer metastasis.

RESULTS

Spray-dried or freeze-dried NPs yielded sustained drug release in vitro. In vitro inhalation evaluation data indicated that the inhalation formulation had better inhalability. Compared with intravenous (IV) administration, pharmacokinetic data suggested that the inhalation formulation prolonged plasma concentration of DTX for greater than 24 h and is more quickly and completely absorbed into the rat lung after intratracheal (IT) administration. Furthermore, freeze-dried powders were found to increase the t1/2 and area under curve (AUC) by 2.3 and 6.5 fold compared to the free drug after IT administration, and spray-dried powders were found to increase the t1/2 and AUC by 3.4 and 8.8 fold, respectively. After pulmonary administration of the inhalation formulation, DTX appeared to prolong the pulmonary absorption time. In addition, the inhalation formulation was distributed to the brain in a sustained release manner.

CONCLUSION

These experimental results demonstrated that freeze- and spray-dried powders have the potential for pulmonary sustained release, and they also have the potential to be used as a novel treatment for the delivery of drugs that pass through the air-blood barrier and enter the brain and are efficient carriers for the treatment of brain metastasis.

Assessment of nicotine release from nicotine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles dry powder inhaler formulations via locomotor activity of C57BL/6 mice

PURPOSE

This study aimed to assess the activity of controlled release nicotine from dry powder inhaler formulation via locomotor activity of C57BL/6 mice.

METHODS

To achieve this we built a nose-only inhalation device for pulmonary administration of nicotine to mice and determined the optimal operational parameters. We used the locomotor activity test to compare the effects of the inhaled nicotine hydrogen tartrate-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (NHT-CS) with NHT in C57BL/6 mice. The minimum inhaled dose of NHT-CS required to alter locomotor activity was compared with inhaled and subcutaneously (s.c) injected NHT. Finally, histological examination of lung tissues was performed to ensure inhalation of NHT-CS did not cause lung damage.

RESULTS

We found a flow rate of 0.9 L/min and an exposure time of 5 min achieved optimal delivery of nicotine. A minimum of 0.88 mg inhaled of NHT-CS or 0.59 mg inhaled of NHT was required to alter locomotor activity similarly to injection of 0.5 mg/kg nicotine, suggesting the reformulation process did not alter the activity of NHT-CS. No differences between untreated and NHT-CS treated lung tissue upon histological examination were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicated the inhaled NHT-CS is a viable preclinical option for developing novel inhalation formulations as a potential anti-smoking therapeutic.

Degradability of chitosan micro/nanoparticles for pulmonary drug delivery

Chitosan, a natural carbohydrate polymer, has long been investigated for drug delivery and medical applications due to its biodegradability, biocompatibility and low toxicity. The micro/nanoparticulate forms of chitosan are reported to enhance the efficiency of drug delivery with better physicochemical properties including improved solubility and bioavailability. This polymer is known to be biodegradable and biocompatible; however, crosslinked chitosan particles may not be biodegradable. Crosslinkers (e.g., tripolyphosphate and glutaraldehyde) are needed for efficient micro/nanoparticle formation, but it is not clear whether the resultant particles are biodegradable or able to release the encapsulated drug fully. To date, no studies have conclusively demonstrated the complete biodegradation or elimination of chitosan nanoparticles in vivo. Herein we review the synthesis and degradation mechanisms of chitosan micro/nanoparticles frequently used in drug delivery especially in pulmonary drug delivery to understand whether these nanoparticles are biodegradable.

In Vitro Enzymatic Digestibility of Glutaraldehyde-Crosslinked Chitosan Nanoparticles in Lysozyme Solution and Their Applicability in Pulmonary Drug Delivery

Herein, the degradation of low molecular weight chitosan (CS), with 92% degree of deacetylation (DD), and its nanoparticles (NP) has been investigated in 0.2 mg/mL lysozyme solution at 37 °C. The CS nanoparticles were prepared using glutaraldehyde crosslinking of chitosan in a water-in-oil emulsion system. The morphological characterization of CS particles was carried out using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) techniques. Using attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) and UV-VIS spectroscopy, the structural integrity of CS and its NPs in lysozyme solution were monitored. The CS powder showed characteristic FTIR bands around 1150 cm⁻¹ associated with the glycosidic bridges (C-O-C bonds) before and after lysozyme treatment for 10 weeks, which indicated no CS degradation. The glutaraldehyde crosslinked CS NPs showed very weak bands associated with the glycosidic bonds in lysozyme solution. Interestingly, the UV-VIS spectroscopic data showed some degradation of CS NPs in lysozyme solution. The results of this study indicate that CS with a high DD and its NPs crosslinked with glutaraldehyde were not degradable in lysozyme solution and thus unsuitable for pulmonary drug delivery. Further studies are warranted to understand the complete degradation of CS and its NPs to ensure their application in pulmonary drug delivery.

Preparation of an Environmentally Friendly Formulation of the Insecticide Nicotine Hydrochloride through Encapsulation in Chitosan/Tripolyphosphate Nanoparticles

Insecticide nicotine hydrochloride (NCT) was formulated as nanoparticles composed of chitosan (CS) and sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) to undermine its adverse impacts on human health and reinforce its physicochemical stability. The study investigated the preparation and characterization of chitosan/tripolyphosphate nanoparticles (CS/TPP NPs) with good encapsulation efficiency (55%), uniform morphology, and physicochemical stability (45 days) through dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements. A bioassay against Musca domestica NCT CS/TPP NPs exhibited good bioactivity and thermal stability. The effect of the monovalent salt (NaCl) on manipulating the formation and size distribution of ionically cross-linked nanoparticles was demonstrated as well. The formulation of NCT CS/TPP NPs could be a utility candidate in public health and agriculture.