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In Vivo Models and In Vitro Assays for the Assessment of Pertussis Toxin Activity. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13080565. [PMID: 34437436 PMCID: PMC8402560 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the main virulence factors produced by Bordetella pertussis is pertussis toxin (PTx) which, in its inactivated form, is the major component of all marketed acellular pertussis vaccines. PTx ADP ribosylates Gαi proteins, thereby affecting the inhibition of adenylate cyclases and resulting in the accumulation of cAMP. Apart from this classical model, PTx also activates some receptors and can affect various ADP ribosylation- and adenylate cyclase-independent signalling pathways. Due to its potent ADP-ribosylation properties, PTx has been used in many research areas. Initially the research primarily focussed on the in vivo effects of the toxin, including histamine sensitization, insulin secretion and leukocytosis. Nowadays, PTx is also used in toxicology research, cell signalling, research involving the blood–brain barrier, and testing of neutralizing antibodies. However, the most important area of use is testing of acellular pertussis vaccines for the presence of residual PTx. In vivo models and in vitro assays for PTx often reflect one of the toxin’s properties or details of its mechanism. Here, the established and novel in vivo and in vitro methods used to evaluate PTx are reviewed, their mechanisms, characteristics and limitations are described, and their application for regulatory and research purposes are considered.
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Hoonakker M, Arciniega J, Hendriksen C. Safety testing of acellular pertussis vaccines: Use of animals and 3Rs alternatives. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2018; 13:2522-2530. [PMID: 28857652 PMCID: PMC5703371 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2017.1349585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The current test of acellular Bordetella pertussis (aP) vaccines for residual pertussis toxin (PTx) is the Histamine Sensitization test (HIST), based on the empirical finding that PTx sensitizes mice to histamine. Although HIST has ensured the safety of aP vaccines for years, it is criticized for the limited understanding of how it works, its technical difficulty, and for animal welfare reasons. To estimate the number of mice used worldwide for HIST, we surveyed major aP manufacturers and organizations performing, requiring, or recommending the test. The survey revealed marked regional differences in regulatory guidelines, including the number of animals used for a single test. Based on information provided by the parties surveyed, we estimated the worldwide number of mice used for testing to be 65,000 per year: ∼48,000 by manufacturers and ∼17,000 by national control laboratories, although the latter number is more affected by uncertainty, due to confidentiality policies. These animals covered the release of approximately 850 final lots and 250 in-process lots of aP vaccines yearly. Although there are several approaches for HIST refinement and reduction, we discuss why the efforts needed for validation and implementation of these interim alternatives may not be worthwhile, when there are several in vitro alternatives in various stages of development, some already fairly advanced. Upon implementation, one or more of these replacement alternatives can substantially reduce the number of animals currently used for the HIST, although careful evaluation of each alternative's mechanism and its suitable validation will be necessary in the path to implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke Hoonakker
- a Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , Bilthoven , The Netherlands
| | - Juan Arciniega
- b United States Food and Drug Administration Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Coenraad Hendriksen
- a Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , Bilthoven , The Netherlands
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Dancs PT, Ruisanchez É, Balogh A, Panta CR, Miklós Z, Nüsing RM, Aoki J, Chun J, Offermanns S, Tigyi G, Benyó Z. LPA 1 receptor-mediated thromboxane A 2 release is responsible for lysophosphatidic acid-induced vascular smooth muscle contraction. FASEB J 2017; 31:1547-1555. [PMID: 28069828 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201600735r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) has been recognized recently as an endothelium-dependent vasodilator, but several lines of evidence indicate that it may also stimulate vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), thereby contributing to vasoregulation and remodeling. In the present study, mRNA expression of all 6 LPA receptor genes was detected in murine aortic VSMCs, with the highest levels of LPA1, LPA2, LPA4, and LPA6 In endothelium-denuded thoracic aorta (TA) and abdominal aorta (AA) segments, 1-oleoyl-LPA and the LPA1-3 agonist VPC31143 induced dose-dependent vasoconstriction. VPC31143-induced AA contraction was sensitive to pertussis toxin (PTX), the LPA1&3 antagonist Ki16425, and genetic deletion of LPA1 but not that of LPA2 or inhibition of LPA3, by diacylglycerol pyrophosphate. Surprisingly, vasoconstriction was also diminished in vessels lacking cyclooxygenase-1 [COX1 knockout (KO)] or the thromboxane prostanoid (TP) receptor (TP KO). VPC31143 increased thromboxane A2 (TXA2) release from TA of wild-type, TP-KO, and LPA2-KO mice but not from LPA1-KO or COX1-KO mice, and PTX blocked this effect. Our findings indicate that LPA causes vasoconstriction in VSMCs, mediated by LPA1-, Gi-, and COX1-dependent autocrine/paracrine TXA2 release and consequent TP activation. We propose that this new-found interaction between the LPA/LPA1 and TXA2/TP pathways plays significant roles in vasoregulation, hemostasis, thrombosis, and vascular remodeling.-Dancs, P. T., Ruisanchez, E., Balogh, A., Panta, C. R., Miklós, Z., Nüsing, R. M., Aoki, J., Chun, J., Offermanns, S., Tigyi, G., Benyó, Z. LPA1 receptor-mediated thromboxane A2 release is responsible for lysophosphatidic acid-induced vascular smooth muscle contraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Péter Tibor Dancs
- Institute of Clinical Experimental Research, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Éva Ruisanchez
- Institute of Clinical Experimental Research, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Andrea Balogh
- Department of Physiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Cecília Rita Panta
- Institute of Clinical Experimental Research, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zsuzsanna Miklós
- Institute of Clinical Experimental Research, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Rolf M Nüsing
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Junken Aoki
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Jerold Chun
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California, USA; and
| | - Stefan Offermanns
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Gábor Tigyi
- Department of Physiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA;
| | - Zoltán Benyó
- Institute of Clinical Experimental Research, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary;
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Alfaro J, Grau M, Serrano M, Checa AI, Criado LM, Moreno E, Paz-Artal E, Mellado M, Serrano A. Blockade of endothelial G(i) protein enhances early engraftment in intraportal cell transplant to mouse liver. Cell Transplant 2013; 21:1383-96. [PMID: 22525519 DOI: 10.3727/096368912x640501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The limited availability of liver donors and recent progress in cell therapy technologies has centered interest on cell transplantation as a therapeutic alternative to orthotopic liver transplant for restoring liver function. Following transplant by intraportal perfusion, the main obstacle to cell integration in the parenchyma is the endothelial barrier. Transplanted cells form emboli in the portal branches, inducing ischemia and reperfusion injury, which cause disruption of endothelial impermeability and activate the immune system. Approximately 95% of transplanted cells fail to implant and die within hours by anoikis or are destroyed by the host immune system. Intravascular perfusion of Bordetella pertussis toxin (PTx) blocks endothelial G(i) proteins and acts as a reversible inducer of actin cytoskeleton reorganization, leading to interruption of cell confluence in vitro and increased vascular permeability in vivo. PTx treatment of the murine portal vascular tree 2 h before intraportal perfusion of embryonic stem cells facilitated rapid cell engraftment. By 2 h postperfusion, the number of implanted cells in treated mice was more than fivefold greater than in untreated controls, a difference that was maintained to at least 30 days posttransplant. We conclude that prior to cell transplant, PTx blockade of the G(i) protein pathway in liver endothelium promotes rapid, efficient cell implantation in liver parenchyma, and blocks chemokine receptor signaling, an essential step in early activation of the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Alfaro
- Cell Transplantation Unit, Department of Immunology Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, 28041 Madrid, Spain
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Irié-N'guessan G, Champy P, Kouakou-Siransy G, Koffi A, Kablan BJ, Leblais V. Tracheal relaxation of five Ivorian anti-asthmatic plants: role of epithelium and K⁺ channels in the effect of the aqueous-alcoholic extract of Dichrostachys cinerea root bark. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2011; 138:432-438. [PMID: 21963567 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2011] [Revised: 09/08/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Leaves of Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae), Baphia nitida, Cassia occidentalis, Desmodium adscendens (Fabaceae), and root bark of Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae) are used in Ivory Coast for the treatment of asthma. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential airway relaxant activity of different extracts of these plants. MATERIALS AND METHODS Extracts of different polarities (H(2)O, EtOH/H(2)O, MeOH and CH(2)Cl(2)) were obtained from these five plants. Their ex vivo relaxant activity was tested in mice isolated trachea precontracted with carbachol (1 μM). RESULTS Cumulative concentrations of most extracts induced moderate to strong relaxation, the methanolic extracts being the most potent and the polar extracts the most active at the concentrations used, supporting the traditional use of these five plants as anti-asthmatic remedies. We further investigated the molecular and cellular mechanisms of the mouse trachea relaxant effect of the aqueous-alcoholic extract of Dichrostachys cinerea root bark, the most potent extract. Its effect was not modified in the presence of β-adrenoceptor antagonists (propranolol or ICI 118,551) or a PKA inhibitor (H89). By contrast, it was decreased after depolarization-induced precontraction (with 80 mM KCl), in the presence of some K(+) channels blockers [4-aminopyridine as voltage-dependent K(+) (K(v)) channel blocker and tetraethylammonium chloride as large conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK(Ca)) channel blocker, but not with glibenclamide, an ATP-sensitive K(+) (K(ATP)) channel blocker] or after epithelium removal. CONCLUSIONS The mouse tracheal relaxant effect of Dichrostachys cinerea EtOH/H(2)O extract was independent of β(2)-adrenoceptors activation and cAMP/PKA pathway, but dependent on epithelium and K(+) channels, namely K(v) and BK(Ca) channels. Further investigation will be required to identify the component(s) responsible for this airways relaxant activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geneviève Irié-N'guessan
- Chimie des substances naturelles, CNRS UMR 8076 BioCIS, LabEx LERMIT, F-92296 Châtenay-Malabry, France.
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Hoonakker ME, Ruiterkamp N, Hendriksen CFM. The cAMP assay: a functional in vitro alternative to the in vivo Histamine Sensitization test. Vaccine 2009; 28:1347-52. [PMID: 19941995 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2009] [Revised: 10/19/2009] [Accepted: 11/05/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Safety requirements stipulate the performance of the in vivo Histamine Sensitization (HS) test for quality control of acellular pertussis (aP) vaccines. For reasons of reproducibility and animal welfare concern, an in vitro assay was developed. The assay reflects the mechanism of histamine sensitization and is based on cAMP production in A10 cells to residual pertussis toxin (PT). We showed that PT induces cAMP levels in a dose-dependent manner while the sensitivity of the assay equals the sensitivity of the HS test. Neither the individual components nor the combination vaccine DTaP-IP did affect the assay. The cAMP assay meets the criteria for specificity and sensitivity and therefore might be a promising candidate to replace the HS test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke E Hoonakker
- Netherlands Vaccine Institute (NVI), P.O. Box 457, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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van Meijeren CE, Vleeming W, Dormans JAMA, van de Kuil T, Opperhuizen A, Hendriksen CFM, de Wildt DJ. Pertussis toxin relaxes small arteries with no vascular lesions or vascular smooth muscle cell injury. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 56:139-43. [PMID: 15625782 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2004.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies showed that pertussis toxin (PT) decreased agonist-induced contractions of isolated rat small mesenteric resistance arteries independently from endothelium, nitric oxide-synthase or intracellular calcium concentrations. In this study, it was investigated if the PT-induced decreased contractile properties of small mesenteric resistance arteries could be a consequence of a PT-induced vascular and/or smooth muscle cell injury, leading to loss of contractile functionality. Male Wistar rats were treated with PT (30 microg/kg, intravenously) and sections of isolated small mesenteric resistance arteries were investigated with light- and electron microscopy. Light microscopic investigation of cross-sectioned small mesenteric resistance arteries of control animals clearly showed a contracted phase, while PT-pretreated animals showed a relaxed smooth inner surface of the vessel, indicating a vasodilated state. Electron microscopic investigation showed that PT-pretreatment neither induced vascular lesions nor caused morphological or numerical changes in cell organelles such as contractile elements of vascular smooth muscle cells. In conclusion, the PT-induced decreased contractile properties of isolated rat small resistance arteries are not caused by a PT-induced vascular and/or smooth muscle cell injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia E van Meijeren
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Pathology and Genetics, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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van Meijeren CE, Vleeming W, van de Kuil T, Gerards AL, Hendriksen CFM, de Wildt DJ. Pertussis toxin-induced histamine sensitisation: an aspecific phenomenon independent from the nitric oxide system? Eur J Pharmacol 2004; 493:139-50. [PMID: 15189775 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2004] [Revised: 04/05/2004] [Accepted: 04/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Mechanisms were studied initially to develop an in vitro safety test for detecting pertussis toxin toxicity in acellular pertussis vaccines based on the histamine sensitisation test. Maximal contractions and sensitivities to different agonists and adrenoceptor-induced contractions in Ca2+-free medium of isolated rat small mesenteric resistance arteries were significantly reduced by in vivo [30 microg/kg, intravenously (i.v.), day 5] or in vitro (10 microg/ml, 2 h) pertussis toxin pretreatment. Pertussis toxin-induced decrease in sensitivity of small mesenteric resistance arteries to noradrenaline was endothelium-dependent. Nomega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) (100 microM, 20 min) did not reestablish the sensitivity to noradrenaline. In vivo L-NAME treatment (0, 1, 10 or 30 mg/kg) of pertussis toxin-pretreated (15 microg/kg) rats did not reduce pertussis toxin-induced enhancement of the histamine-induced decrease in blood pressure and histamine (10, 30, 100 or 300 mg/kg) induced mortality. Finally, in vivo pertussis toxin pretreatment sensitises rats for sodium nitroprusside (50 microg/kg/min). We conclude that pertussis toxin-induced histamine sensitisation is caused by an interference of pertussis toxin with the contractile mechanisms of vascular smooth muscle of resistance arteries which indicates only an indirect role for histamine in the histamine sensitisation test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia E van Meijeren
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Laboratory of Toxicology, Pathology and Genetics, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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