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Hoonakker M, Zariri A, de Brouwer L, David D, Borgman A, Sloots A. An in vitro assay for toxicity testing of Clostridium perfringens type C β-toxin. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1373411. [PMID: 38646535 PMCID: PMC11026656 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1373411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Veterinary vaccines against Clostridium perfringens type C need to be tested for absence of toxicity, as mandated by pharmacopoeias worldwide. This toxicity testing is required at multiple manufacturing steps and relies on outdated mouse tests that involve severe animal suffering. Clostridium perfringens type C produces several toxins of which the β-toxin is the primary component responsible for causing disease. Here, we describe the successful development of a new cell-based in vitro assay that can address the specific toxicity of the β-toxin. Methods Development of the cell-based assay followed the principle of in vitro testing developed for Cl. septicum vaccines, which is based on Vero cells. We screened four cell lines and selected the THP-1 cell line, which was shown to be the most specific and sensitive for β-toxin activity, in combination with a commercially available method to determine cell viability (MTS assay) as a readout. Results The current animal test is estimated to detect 100 - 1000-fold dilutions of the Cl. perfringens type C non-inactivated antigen. When tested with an active Cl. perfringens type C antigen preparation, derived from a commercial vaccine manufacturing process, our THP-1 cell-based assay was able to detect toxin activity from undiluted to over 10000-fold dilution, showing a linear range between approximately 1000- and 10000-fold dilutions. Assay specificity for the β-toxin was confirmed with neutralizing antibodies and lack of reaction to Cl. perfringens culture medium. In addition, assay parameters demonstrated good repeatability. Conclusions Here, we have shown proof of concept for a THP-1 cell-based assay for toxicity testing of veterinary Cl. perfringens type C vaccines that is suitable for all vaccine production steps. This result represents a significant step towards the replacement of animal-based toxicity testing of this veterinary clostridial antigen. As a next step, assessment of the assay's sensitivity and repeatability and validation of the method will have to be performed in a commercial manufacturing context in order to formally implement the assay in vaccine quality control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Arjen Sloots
- Department of Product Characterization and Formulation, Intravacc B.V., Bilthoven, Netherlands
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Abstract
The current test of acellular Bordetella pertussis (aP) vaccines for residual pertussis toxin (PTx) is the Histamine Sensitization test (HIST), based on the empirical finding that PTx sensitizes mice to histamine. Although HIST has ensured the safety of aP vaccines for years, it is criticized for the limited understanding of how it works, its technical difficulty, and for animal welfare reasons. To estimate the number of mice used worldwide for HIST, we surveyed major aP manufacturers and organizations performing, requiring, or recommending the test. The survey revealed marked regional differences in regulatory guidelines, including the number of animals used for a single test. Based on information provided by the parties surveyed, we estimated the worldwide number of mice used for testing to be 65,000 per year: ∼48,000 by manufacturers and ∼17,000 by national control laboratories, although the latter number is more affected by uncertainty, due to confidentiality policies. These animals covered the release of approximately 850 final lots and 250 in-process lots of aP vaccines yearly. Although there are several approaches for HIST refinement and reduction, we discuss why the efforts needed for validation and implementation of these interim alternatives may not be worthwhile, when there are several in vitro alternatives in various stages of development, some already fairly advanced. Upon implementation, one or more of these replacement alternatives can substantially reduce the number of animals currently used for the HIST, although careful evaluation of each alternative's mechanism and its suitable validation will be necessary in the path to implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke Hoonakker
- a Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , Bilthoven , The Netherlands
| | - Juan Arciniega
- b United States Food and Drug Administration Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Coenraad Hendriksen
- a Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , Bilthoven , The Netherlands
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Bruysters MWP, Schiffelers MJ, Hoonakker M, Jungbaeck C, Ragan I, Rommel E, van der Stappen T, Viviani L, Hessel EV, Akkermans AM, Vandebriel RJ. Drivers and barriers in the consistency approach for vaccine batch release testing: Report of an international workshop. Biologicals 2017; 48:1-5. [PMID: 28666717 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2017.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Safety and potency assessment for batch release testing of established vaccines still relies partly on animal tests. An important avenue to move to batch release without animal testing is the consistency approach. This approach is based on thorough characterization of the vaccine, and the principle that the quality of subsequent batches is the consequence of the application of consistent production of batches monitored by a GMP quality system. Efforts to implement the consistency approach are supported by several drivers from industry, government, and research, but there are also several barriers that must be overcome. A workshop entitled "Consistency Approach, Drivers and Barriers" was organized, which aimed to discuss and identify drivers and barriers for the implementation of the 3Rs in the consistency approach from three different perspectives/domains (industry, regulatory and science frameworks). The workshop contributed to a better understanding of these drivers and barriers and resulted in recommendations to improve the overall regulatory processes for the consistency approach. With this report, we summarise the outcome of this workshop and intend to offer a constructive contribution to the international discussion on regulatory acceptance of the consistency approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn W P Bruysters
- National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Marie-Jeanne Schiffelers
- Utrecht University School of Governance (USBO), Bijlhouwerstraat 6, 3511 ZC Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Marieke Hoonakker
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Carmen Jungbaeck
- Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, Paul-Ehrlich-Straße 51-59, D-63225 Langen, Germany.
| | - Ian Ragan
- NC3Rs Board, Gibbs Building, 215 Euston Road, London NW1 2BE, UK.
| | - Eddy Rommel
- Rommel Consulting Partners, B-1370 Jodoigne, Belgium.
| | | | | | - Ellen V Hessel
- National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Arnoud M Akkermans
- National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Rob J Vandebriel
- National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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Metz B, Hoonakker M, Uittenbogaard JP, Weyts M, Mommen GPM, Meiring HD, Tilstra W, Pennings JLA, van der Pol LA, Kuipers B, Sloots A, van den IJssel J, van de Waterbeemd B, van der Ark A. Proteome Analysis Is a Valuable Tool to Monitor Antigen Expression during Upstream Processing of Whole-Cell Pertussis Vaccines. J Proteome Res 2016; 16:528-537. [PMID: 27977922 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Physicochemical and immunochemical assays were applied to substantiate the relation between upstream processing and the quality of whole-cell pertussis vaccines. Bordetella pertussis bacteria were cultured on a chemically defined medium using a continuous cultivation process in stirred tank reactors to obtain uniform protein expression. Continuous culture favors the consistent production of proteins known as virulence factors. Magnesium sulfate was added during the steady state of the culture in order to diminish the expression of virulence proteins. Changes in gene expression and antigen composition were measured by microarrays, mass spectrometry and ELISA. Transcriptome and proteome data revealed high similarity between the biological triplicates demonstrating consistent cultivation of B. pertussis. The addition of magnesium sulfate resulted in an instant downregulation of the virulence genes in B. pertussis, but a gradual decrease of virulence proteins. The quantity of virulence proteins concurred highly with the potency of the corresponding whole-cell pertussis vaccines, which were determined by the Kendrick test. In conclusion, proteome analysis provided detailed information on the composition and proportion of virulence proteins present in the whole-cell preparations of B. pertussis. Moreover, proteome analysis is a valuable method to monitor the production process of whole-cell biomass and predict the product quality of whole-cell pertussis vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Metz
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marieke Hoonakker
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Joost P Uittenbogaard
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Michel Weyts
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Geert P M Mommen
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Hugo D Meiring
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Wichard Tilstra
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen L A Pennings
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment , P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Leo A van der Pol
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Betsy Kuipers
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment , P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Arjen Sloots
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jan van den IJssel
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Bas van de Waterbeemd
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Arno van der Ark
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc) , P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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Wagner L, Isbrucker R, Locht C, Arciniega J, Costanzo A, McFarland R, Oh H, Hoonakker M, Descamps J, Andersen SR, Gupta RK, Markey K, Chapsal JM, Lidster K, Casey W, Allen D. In search of acceptable alternatives to the murine histamine sensitisation test (HIST): what is possible and practical? Pharmeur Bio Sci Notes 2016; 2016:151-170. [PMID: 28279256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The 'International Workshop on Alternatives to the Murine Histamine Sensitization Test for Acellular Pertussis Vaccines: In Search of Acceptable Alternatives to the Murine Histamine Sensitization Test (HIST): What is Possible and Practical?' was held on 4 and 5 March 2015 in London, United Kingdom. Participants discussed the results of the data generated from an international collaborative study (BSP114 Phase 2) sponsored by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines & Health Care (EDQM) to determine if a modified Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell-based clustering assay is a suitable alternative to replace HIST. Workshop participants agreed that protocol transferability demonstrated in the collaborative study indicates that a standardised CHO cell assay is adequate for measuring pure PTx in reference preparations. However, vaccine manufacturers would still need to demonstrate that the method is valid to detect or measure residual PTx in their specific adjuvanted products. The 2 modified CHO cell protocols included in the study (the Direct and the Indirect Methods) deserve further consideration as alternatives to HIST. Using the CHO cell assay, an in vitro alternative, for acellular pertussis (aP) vaccine batch release testing would reduce the number of animals used for aP vaccine safety testing. A strategic, stepwise adoption plan was proposed, in which the alternative test would be used for release purposes first, and then, once sufficient confidence in its suitable performance has been gained, its use would be extended to stability testing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - R K Gupta
- Biologics Quality & Regulatory Consultants, LLC
| | | | | | | | | | - D Allen
- ILS, corresponding author: PO Box 13501, RTP, NC, 27709, USA;
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