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Rao S, Sadybekov A, DeWitt DC, Lipka J, Katritch V, Herring BE. Detection of autism spectrum disorder-related pathogenic trio variants by a novel structure-based approach. Mol Autism 2024; 15:12. [PMID: 38566250 PMCID: PMC10988830 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-024-00590-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glutamatergic synapse dysfunction is believed to underlie the development of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Intellectual Disability (ID) in many individuals. However, identification of genetic markers that contribute to synaptic dysfunction in these individuals is notoriously difficult. Based on genomic analysis, structural modeling, and functional data, we recently established the involvement of the TRIO-RAC1 pathway in ASD and ID. Furthermore, we identified a pathological de novo missense mutation hotspot in TRIO's GEF1 domain. ASD/ID-related missense mutations within this domain compromise glutamatergic synapse function and likely contribute to the development of ASD/ID. The number of ASD/ID cases with mutations identified within TRIO's GEF1 domain is increasing. However, tools for accurately predicting whether such mutations are detrimental to protein function are lacking. METHODS Here we deployed advanced protein structural modeling techniques to predict potential de novo pathogenic and benign mutations within TRIO's GEF1 domain. Mutant TRIO-9 constructs were generated and expressed in CA1 pyramidal neurons of organotypic cultured hippocampal slices. AMPA receptor-mediated postsynaptic currents were examined in these neurons using dual whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology. We also validated these findings using orthogonal co-immunoprecipitation and fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM-FRET) experiments to assay TRIO mutant overexpression effects on TRIO-RAC1 binding and on RAC1 activity in HEK293/T cells. RESULTS Missense mutations in TRIO's GEF1 domain that were predicted to disrupt TRIO-RAC1 binding or stability were tested experimentally and found to greatly impair TRIO-9's influence on glutamatergic synapse function. In contrast, missense mutations in TRIO's GEF1 domain that were predicted to have minimal effect on TRIO-RAC1 binding or stability did not impair TRIO-9's influence on glutamatergic synapse function in our experimental assays. In orthogonal assays, we find most of the mutations predicted to disrupt binding display loss of function but mutants predicted to disrupt stability do not reflect our results from neuronal electrophysiological data. LIMITATIONS We present a method to predict missense mutations in TRIO's GEF1 domain that may compromise TRIO function and test for effects in a limited number of assays. Possible limitations arising from the model systems employed here can be addressed in future studies. Our method does not provide evidence for whether these mutations confer ASD/ID risk or the likelihood that such mutations will result in the development of ASD/ID. CONCLUSIONS Here we show that a combination of structure-based computational predictions and experimental validation can be employed to reliably predict whether missense mutations in the human TRIO gene impede TRIO protein function and compromise TRIO's role in glutamatergic synapse regulation. With the growing accessibility of genome sequencing, the use of such tools in the accurate identification of pathological mutations will be instrumental in diagnostics of ASD/ID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadhna Rao
- Department of Biological Sciences, Neurobiology Section, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.
| | - Anastasiia Sadybekov
- Quantitative and Computational Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - David C DeWitt
- Department of Pathology, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Joanna Lipka
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Vsevolod Katritch
- Quantitative and Computational Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.
| | - Bruce E Herring
- Department of Biological Sciences, Neurobiology Section, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.
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2
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Pushkin AN, Kay Y, Herring BE. Protein 4.1N Plays a Cell Type-Specific Role in Hippocampal Glutamatergic Synapse Regulation. J Neurosci 2023; 43:8336-8347. [PMID: 37845032 PMCID: PMC10711697 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0185-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Many glutamatergic synapse proteins contain a 4.1N protein binding domain. However, a role for 4.1N in the regulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission has been controversial. Here, we observe significantly higher expression of protein 4.1N in granule neurons of the dentate gyrus (DG granule neurons) compared with other hippocampal regions. We discover that reducing 4.1N expression in rat DG granule neurons of either sex results in a significant reduction in glutamatergic synapse function that is caused by a decrease in the number of glutamatergic synapses. By contrast, we find reduction of 4.1N expression in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons has no impact on basal glutamatergic neurotransmission. We also find 4.1N's C-terminal domain (CTD) to be nonessential to its role in the regulation of glutamatergic synapses of DG granule neurons. Instead, we show that 4.1N's four-point-one, ezrin, radixin, and moesin (FERM) domain is essential for supporting synaptic AMPA receptor (AMPAR) function in these neurons. Altogether, this work demonstrates a novel, cell type-specific role for protein 4.1N in governing glutamatergic synapse function.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Glutamatergic synapses exhibit immense molecular diversity. In comparison to heavily studied Schaffer collateral, CA1 glutamatergic synapses, significantly less is known about perforant path-dentate gyrus (DG) synapses. Our data demonstrate that compromising 4.1N function in CA1 pyramidal neurons produces no alteration in basal glutamatergic synaptic transmission. However, in DG granule neurons, compromising 4.1N function leads to a significant decrease in the strength of glutamatergic neurotransmission at perforant pathway synapses. Together, our data identifies 4.1N as a cell type-specific regulator of synaptic transmission within the hippocampus and reveals a unique molecular program that governs perforant pathway synapse function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna N Pushkin
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089
| | - Yuni Kay
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089
| | - Bruce E Herring
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089
- Department of Biological Sciences, Neurobiology Section, Dornslife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089
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3
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Kay Y, Tsan L, Davis EA, Tian C, Décarie-Spain L, Sadybekov A, Pushkin AN, Katritch V, Kanoski SE, Herring BE. Schizophrenia-associated SAP97 mutations increase glutamatergic synapse strength in the dentate gyrus and impair contextual episodic memory in rats. Nat Commun 2022; 13:798. [PMID: 35145085 PMCID: PMC8831576 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28430-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the putative glutamatergic synapse scaffolding protein SAP97 are associated with the development of schizophrenia in humans. However, the role of SAP97 in synaptic regulation is unclear. Here we show that SAP97 is expressed in the dendrites of granule neurons in the dentate gyrus but not in the dendrites of other hippocampal neurons. Schizophrenia-related perturbations of SAP97 did not affect CA1 pyramidal neuron synapse function. Conversely, these perturbations produce dramatic augmentation of glutamatergic neurotransmission in granule neurons that can be attributed to a release of perisynaptic GluA1-containing AMPA receptors into the postsynaptic densities of perforant pathway synapses. Furthermore, inhibiting SAP97 function in the dentate gyrus was sufficient to impair contextual episodic memory. Together, our results identify a cell-type-specific synaptic regulatory mechanism in the dentate gyrus that, when disrupted, impairs contextual information processing in rats. The effects of SAP97 mutations associated with schizophrenia on synaptic function are unclear. Here, the authors show that schizophrenia-related SAP97 mutations enhance glutamatergic synapse strength in the dentate gyrus, impairing contextual episodic memory in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuni Kay
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Linda Tsan
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Davis
- Department of Biological Sciences, Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Chen Tian
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Léa Décarie-Spain
- Department of Biological Sciences, Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Anastasiia Sadybekov
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Anna N Pushkin
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Vsevolod Katritch
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.,Quantitative and Computational Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Scott E Kanoski
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Bruce E Herring
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA. .,Department of Biological Sciences, Neurobiology Section, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.
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4
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Kay Y, Herring BE. An optogenetic method for investigating presynaptic molecular regulation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:11329. [PMID: 34059719 PMCID: PMC8166971 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90244-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
While efficient methods are well established for studying postsynaptic protein regulation of glutamatergic synapses in the mammalian central nervous system, similarly efficient methods are lacking for studying proteins regulating presynaptic function. In the present study, we introduce an optical/electrophysiological method for investigating presynaptic molecular regulation. Here, using an optogenetic approach, we selectively stimulate genetically modified presynaptic CA3 pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus and measure optically-induced excitatory postsynaptic currents produced in unmodified postsynaptic CA1 pyramidal neurons. While such use of optogenetics is not novel, previous implementation methods do not allow basic quantification of the changes in synaptic strength produced by genetic manipulations. We find that incorporating simultaneous recordings of fiber volley amplitude provides a control for optical stimulation intensity and, as a result, creates a metric of synaptic efficacy that can be compared across experimental conditions. In the present study, we utilize our new method to demonstrate that inhibition of synaptotagmin 1 expression in CA3 pyramidal neurons leads to a significant reduction in Schaffer collateral synapse function, an effect that is masked with conventional electrical stimulation. Our hope is that this method will expedite our understanding of molecular regulatory pathways that govern presynaptic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuni Kay
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA
| | - Bruce E Herring
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.
- Department of Biological Sciences, Neurobiology Section, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA.
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Tiam1 is Critical for Glutamatergic Synapse Structure and Function in the Hippocampus. J Neurosci 2019; 39:9306-9315. [PMID: 31597723 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1566-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests numerous glutamatergic synapse subtypes exist in the brain, and that these subtypes are likely defined by unique molecular regulatory mechanisms. Recent work has identified substantial divergence of molecular composition between commonly studied Schaffer collateral synapses and perforant path-dentate gyrus (DG) synapses of the hippocampus. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that may confer unique properties to perforant path-DG synapses. Here we investigate whether the RhoGEF (Rho guanine-nucleotide exchange factor) protein Tiam1 plays a unique role in the regulation of glutamatergic synapses in dentate granule neurons using a combination of molecular, electrophysiological, and imaging approaches in rat entorhino-hippocampal slices of both sexes. We find that inhibition of Tiam1 function in dentate granule neurons reduces synaptic AMPA receptor function and causes dendritic spines to adopt an elongated filopodia-like morphology. We also find that Tiam1's support of perforant path-DG synapse function is dependent on its GEF domain and identify a potential role for the auto-inhibitory PH domain of Tiam1 in regulating Tiam1 function at these synapses. In marked contrast, reduced Tiam1 expression in CA1 pyramidal neurons produced no effect on glutamatergic synapse development. Together, these data identify a critical role for Tiam1 in the hippocampus and reveal a unique Tiam1-mediated molecular program of glutamatergic synapse regulation in dentate granule neurons.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Several lines of evidence independently point to the molecular diversity of glutamatergic synapses in the brain. Rho guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (RhoGEF) proteins as powerful modulators of glutamatergic synapse function have also become increasingly appreciated in recent years. Here we investigate the synaptic regulatory role of the RhoGEF protein Tiam1, whose expression appears to be remarkably enriched in granule neurons of the dentate gyrus. We find that Tiam1 plays a critical role in the development of glutamatergic perforant path-dentate gyrus synapses, but not in commonly studied in Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses. Together, these data reveal a unique RhoGEF-mediated molecular program of glutamatergic synapse regulation in dentate granule neurons.
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Xiong G, Metheny H, Johnson BN, Cohen AS. A Comparison of Different Slicing Planes in Preservation of Major Hippocampal Pathway Fibers in the Mouse. Front Neuroanat 2017; 11:107. [PMID: 29201002 PMCID: PMC5696601 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2017.00107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The hippocampus plays a critical role in learning and memory and higher cognitive functions, and its dysfunction has been implicated in various neuropathological disorders. Electrophysiological recording undertaken in live brain slices is one of the most powerful tools for investigating hippocampal cellular and network activities. The plane for cutting the slices determines which afferent and/or efferent connections are best preserved, and there are three commonly used slices: hippocampal-entorhinal cortex (HEC), coronal and transverse. All three slices have been widely used for studying the major afferent hippocampal pathways including the perforant path (PP), the mossy fibers (MFs) and the Schaffer collaterals (SCs). Surprisingly, there has never been a systematic investigation of the anatomical and functional consequences of slicing at a particular angle. In the present study, we focused on how well fiber pathways are preserved from the entorhinal cortex (EC) to the hippocampus, and within the hippocampus, in slices generated by sectioning at different angles. The postmortem neural tract tracer 1,1′-dioctadecyl-3,3,3′3′-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (DiI) was used to label afferent fibers to hippocampal principal neurons in fixed slices or whole brains. Laser scanning confocal microscopy was adopted for imaging DiI-labeled axons and terminals. We demonstrated that PP fibers were well preserved in HEC slices, MFs in both HEC and transverse slices and SCs in all three types of slices. Correspondingly, field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) could be consistently evoked in HEC slices when stimulating PP fibers and recorded in stratum lacunosum-moleculare (sl-m) of area CA1, and when stimulating the dentate granule cell layer (gcl) and recording in stratum lucidum (sl) of area CA3. The MF evoked fEPSPs could not be recorded in CA3 from coronal slices. In contrast to our DiI-tracing data demonstrating severely truncated PP fibers in coronal slices, fEPSPs could still be recorded in CA1 sl-m in this plane, suggesting that an additional afferent fiber pathway other than PP might be involved. The present study increases our understanding of which hippocampal pathways are best preserved in the three most common brain slice preparations, and will help investigators determine the appropriate slices to use for physiological studies depending on the subregion of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoxiang Xiong
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Hannah Metheny
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Brian N Johnson
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Akiva S Cohen
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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7
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Lang DM, Romero-Alemán MDM, Dobson B, Santos E, Monzón-Mayor M. Nogo-A does not inhibit retinal axon regeneration in the lizardGallotia galloti. J Comp Neurol 2016; 525:936-954. [DOI: 10.1002/cne.24112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 06/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dirk M. Lang
- Division of Physiological Sciences, Department of Human Biology; University of Cape Town; Observatory 7925 South Africa
| | - Maria del Mar Romero-Alemán
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences; University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria; 35016 Las Palmas Canary Islands Spain
| | - Bryony Dobson
- Division of Physiological Sciences, Department of Human Biology; University of Cape Town; Observatory 7925 South Africa
| | - Elena Santos
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences; University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria; 35016 Las Palmas Canary Islands Spain
| | - Maximina Monzón-Mayor
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences; University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria; 35016 Las Palmas Canary Islands Spain
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Pohland M, Glumm R, Stoenica L, Höltje M, Kiwit J, Ahnert-Hilger G, Strauss U, Bräuer AU, Paul F, Glumm J. Studying Axonal Outgrowth and Regeneration of the Corticospinal Tract in Organotypic Slice Cultures. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32:1465-77. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Pohland
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Glumm
- NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Clinical and Experimental Research Center for Multiple Sclerosis, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Luminita Stoenica
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Markus Höltje
- Institute for Integrative Neuroanatomy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jürgen Kiwit
- Department of Neurosurgery, HELIOS Klinikum Berlin Buch, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gudrun Ahnert-Hilger
- Institute for Integrative Neuroanatomy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ulf Strauss
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anja U. Bräuer
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Friedemann Paul
- NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Clinical and Experimental Research Center for Multiple Sclerosis, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jana Glumm
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, HELIOS Klinikum Berlin Buch, Berlin, Germany
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Pandamooz S, Nabiuni M, Miyan J, Ahmadiani A, Dargahi L. Organotypic Spinal Cord Culture: a Proper Platform for the Functional Screening. Mol Neurobiol 2015; 53:4659-74. [PMID: 26310972 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-015-9403-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Recent improvements in organotypic slice culturing and its accompanying technological innovations have made this biological preparation increasingly useful ex vivo experimental model. Among organotypic slice cultures obtained from various central nervous regions, spinal cord slice culture is an absorbing model that represents several unique advantages over other current in vitro and in vivo models. The culture of developing spinal cord slices, as allows real-time observation of embryonic cells behaviors, is an instrumental platform for developmental investigation. Importantly, due to the ability of ex vivo models to recapitulate different aspects of corresponding in vivo conditions, these models have been subject of various manipulations to derive disease-relevant slice models. Moreover spinal cord slice cultures represent a potential platform for screening of different pharmacological agents and evaluation of cell transplantation and neuroregenerative materials. In this review, we will focus on studies carried out using the ex vivo model of spinal cord slice cultures and main advantages linked to practicality of these slices in both normal and neuropathological diseases and summarize them in different categories based on application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sareh Pandamooz
- Neuroscience Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Nabiuni
- Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jaleel Miyan
- Neurobiology Research Group, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Abolhassan Ahmadiani
- Neuroscience Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Leila Dargahi
- NeuroBiology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Jain KK. Regenerative Therapy for Central Nervous System Trauma. Regen Med 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-5690-8_28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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11
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Regenerative Therapy for Central Nervous System Trauma. Regen Med 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-9075-1_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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