1
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Kaplan HM, Pazarci P. Antiproliferative and Apoptotic Effects of Tempol, Methotrexate, and Their Combinations on the MCF7 Breast Cancer Cell Line. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:6658-6662. [PMID: 38371775 PMCID: PMC10870381 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c07624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Breast cancer holds the top position among the cancers occurring in women. Despite the utilization of surgical removal, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, there is currently no conclusive treatment available to prevent breast cancer. New treatment approaches are being studied since traditional chemotherapeutics also damage healthy cells. Tempol (TPL) is a potent antioxidant agent that has been shown to exhibit anticancer activity. The objective of this research was to examine the impacts on cell proliferation and apoptosis by using methotrexate (MTX) and TPL individually and in combination on MCF7 breast cancer cells. MCF7 cells were exposed to TPL, MTX, and MTX + TPL for 48 h. The effects of the administered drugs on cell viability were determined using a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay analysis was conducted to assess the levels of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2, the pro-apoptotic protein Bax, and the activity of caspase-3 in MCF7 cells. Increasing concentrations of TPL and MTX significantly decreased the proliferation in MCF7 cells in both solo and combined use. Solo and combined use of TPL and MTX significantly increased caspase-3 activity and Bax levels and significantly decreased Bcl-2 levels in the cells. This study revealed that the solo use of TPL and MTX inhibited proliferation and increased apoptotic activity in the cells. In addition, TPL increased the antiproliferative and apoptosis efficiency of MTX on cancer cells as a result of the combined use of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Halil M. Kaplan
- Department
of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Cukurova
University, Adana 01330, Turkey
| | - Percin Pazarci
- Department
of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey
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2
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Celik Topkara K, Kilinc E, Cetinkaya A, Saylan A, Demir S. Therapeutic effects of carvacrol on beta-amyloid-induced impairments in in vitro and in vivo models of Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2022; 56:5714-5726. [PMID: 34904309 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Due to the complex nature of Alzheimer's disease (AD), it is important to investigate agents with multiple effects in the treatment of AD. Carvacrol possesses anti-acetylcholinesterase, anti-oxidant, and neuroprotective properties. We therefore investigated therapeutic effects of carvacrol on cell viability, oxidative stress, and cognitive impairment in Aβ1-42-induced in vitro and in vivo models of AD. SH-SY5Y cells differentiated into neurons by retinoic acid were pretreated with carvacrol or galantamine before Aβ1-42 administration. For in vivo experiments, a rat model of AD was established by bilateral intrahippocampal injection of Aβ1-42. The groups received 1% DMSO, carvacrol, or galantamine intraperitoneally twice a day (morning and afternoon) for 6 days. Cell viability was determined using MTT and LDH tests. Learning and memory functions were assessed using a passive-avoidance test. Oxidant-antioxidant parameters (MDA, H2 O2 , SOD, and CAT) and Tau, Aβ1-40, and Aβ1-42 peptide levels in in vitro supernatant or in vivo serum and hippocampal samples were measured using ELISA. Carvacrol increased cell viability and exhibited a protective effect against oxidative stress by preventing Aβ1-42-induced cytotoxicity, LDH release, and increments in MDA and H2 O2 levels in vitro. Additionally, it improved memory impairment by reversing Aβ1-42-induced changes on passive-avoidance test. Carvacrol ameliorated Aβ1-42-induced increments in MDA and H2 O2 levels in in vitro supernatant and in vivo hippocampal samples. However, none of the treatments changed in vitro SOD and Tau-peptide levels, or in vivo serum levels of MDA, H2 O2 , SOD, CAT, Tau peptide, Aβ1-40, or Aβ1-42. Our results suggest that multi-target pharmacological agent carvacrol may be promising in treatment of AD by preventing beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity, oxidative stress, and memory deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erkan Kilinc
- Department of Physiology, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu, Turkey
| | - Ayhan Cetinkaya
- Department of Physiology, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu, Turkey
| | - Aslıhan Saylan
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu, Turkey
| | - Serif Demir
- Department of Physiology, Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey
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3
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SOCE-mediated NFAT1–NOX2–NLRP1 inflammasome involves in lipopolysaccharide-induced neuronal damage and Aβ generation. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:3183-3205. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02717-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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4
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Yan XW, Liu HJ, Hong YX, Meng T, Du J, Chang C. lncRNA XIST induces Aβ accumulation and neuroinflammation by the epigenetic repression of NEP in Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurogenet 2022; 36:11-20. [PMID: 35098860 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2022.2028784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Wu Yan
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
| | - Huai-Jun Liu
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
| | - Yu-Xing Hong
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
| | - Ting Meng
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
| | - Jun Du
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
| | - Cheng Chang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
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5
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Liu M, Sui D, Dexheimer T, Hovde S, Deng X, Wang KW, Lin HL, Chien HT, Kweon HK, Kuo NS, Ayoub CA, Jimenez-Harrison D, Andrews PC, Kwok R, Bochar DA, Kuret J, Fortin J, Tsay YG, Kuo MH. Hyperphosphorylation Renders Tau Prone to Aggregate and to Cause Cell Death. Mol Neurobiol 2020; 57:4704-4719. [PMID: 32780352 PMCID: PMC7530023 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-020-02034-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder without a cure or prevention to date. Hyperphosphorylated tau forms the neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) that correlate well with the progression of cognitive impairments. Animal studies demonstrated the pathogenic role of hyperphosphorylated tau. Understanding how abnormal phosphorylation renders a normal tau prone to form toxic fibrils is key to delineating molecular pathology and to developing efficacious drugs for AD. Production of a tau bearing the disease-relevant hyperphosphorylation and molecular characters is a pivotal step. Here, we report the preparation and characterization of a recombinant hyperphosphorylated tau (p-tau) with strong relevance to disease. P-tau generated by the PIMAX approach resulted in phosphorylation at multiple epitopes linked to the progression of AD neuropathology. In stark contrast to unmodified tau that required an aggregation inducer, and which had minimal effects on cell functions, p-tau formed inducer-free fibrils that triggered a spike of mitochondrial superoxide, induced apoptosis, and caused cell death at sub-micromolar concentrations. P-tau-induced apoptosis was suppressed by inhibitors for reactive oxygen species. Hyperphosphorylation apparently caused rapid formation of a disease-related conformation. In both aggregation and cytotoxicity, p-tau exhibited seeding activities that converted the unmodified tau into a cytotoxic species with an increased propensity for fibrillization. These characters of p-tau are consistent with the emerging view that hyperphosphorylation causes tau to become an aggregation-prone and cytotoxic species that underlies diffusible pathology in AD and other tauopathies. Our results further suggest that p-tau affords a feasible tool for Alzheimer's disease mechanistic and drug discovery studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyu Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, 603 Wilson Road, Room 401, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Dexin Sui
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, 603 Wilson Road, Room 401, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Thomas Dexheimer
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Stacy Hovde
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, 603 Wilson Road, Room 401, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Xiexiong Deng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, 603 Wilson Road, Room 401, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1085, USA
| | - Kuang-Wei Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, 603 Wilson Road, Room 401, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Hsin Lian Lin
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, China
| | - Hsiao-Tien Chien
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, 603 Wilson Road, Room 401, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, China
| | - Hye Kyong Kweon
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Nora Sheen Kuo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Christopher A Ayoub
- Center for Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Molecular Biochemistry, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Daniela Jimenez-Harrison
- Center for Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Molecular Biochemistry, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Philip C Andrews
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Roland Kwok
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Jeff Kuret
- Center for Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Molecular Biochemistry, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Jessica Fortin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Yeou-Guang Tsay
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, China
| | - Min-Hao Kuo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, 603 Wilson Road, Room 401, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
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6
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Dubey SK, Ram MS, Krishna KV, Saha RN, Singhvi G, Agrawal M, Ajazuddin, Saraf S, Saraf S, Alexander A. Recent Expansions on Cellular Models to Uncover the Scientific Barriers Towards Drug Development for Alzheimer's Disease. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2019; 39:181-209. [PMID: 30671696 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-019-00653-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Globally, the central nervous system (CNS) disorders appear as the most critical pathological threat with no proper cure. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one such condition frequently observed with the aged population and sometimes in youth too. Most of the research utilizes different animal models for in vivo study of AD pathophysiology and to investigate the potency of the newly developed therapy. These in vivo models undoubtably provide a powerful investigation tool to study human brain. Although, it sometime fails to mimic the exact environment and responses as the human brain owing to the distinctive genetic and anatomical features of human and rodent brain. In such condition, the in vitro cell model derived from patient specific cell or human cell lines can recapitulate the human brain environment. In addition, the frequent use of animals in research increases the cost of study and creates various ethical issues. Instead, the use of in vitro cellular models along with animal models can enhance the translational values of in vivo models and represent a better and effective mean to investigate the potency of therapeutics. This strategy also limits the excessive use of laboratory animal during the drug development process. Generally, the in vitro cell lines are cultured from AD rat brain endothelial cells, the rodent models, human astrocytes, human brain capillary endothelial cells, patient derived iPSCs (induced pluripotent stem cells) and also from the non-neuronal cells. During the literature review process, we observed that there are very few reviews available which describe the significance and characteristics of in vitro cell lines, for AD investigation. Thus, in the present review article, we have compiled the various in vitro cell lines used in AD investigation including HBMEC, BCECs, SHSY-5Y, hCMEC/D3, PC-2 cell line, bEND3 cells, HEK293, hNPCs, RBE4 cells, SK-N-MC, BMVECs, CALU-3, 7W CHO, iPSCs and cerebral organoids cell lines and different types of culture media such as SCM, EMEM, DMEM/F12, RPMI, EBM and 3D-cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil Kumar Dubey
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS-PILANI), Pilani Campus, Rajasthan, India.
| | - Munnangi Siva Ram
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS-PILANI), Pilani Campus, Rajasthan, India
| | - Kowthavarapu Venkata Krishna
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS-PILANI), Pilani Campus, Rajasthan, India
| | - Ranendra Narayan Saha
- Department of Biotechnology, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS-PILANI), Dubai Campus, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Gautam Singhvi
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS-PILANI), Pilani Campus, Rajasthan, India
| | - Mukta Agrawal
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Kohka, Kurud Road, Bhilai, Chhattisgarh, 490024, India
| | - Ajazuddin
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Kohka, Kurud Road, Bhilai, Chhattisgarh, 490024, India
| | - Swarnlata Saraf
- University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, 492 010, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Shailendra Saraf
- University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, 492 010, Chhattisgarh, India.,Hemchand Yadav University, Durg, Chhattisgarh, 491 001, India
| | - Amit Alexander
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Rungta College of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Kohka, Kurud Road, Bhilai, Chhattisgarh, 490024, India.
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7
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Omar SH, Scott CJ, Hamlin AS, Obied HK. Olive Biophenols Reduces Alzheimer's Pathology in SH-SY5Y Cells and APPswe Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 20:ijms20010125. [PMID: 30598025 PMCID: PMC6337485 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20010125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a major neurodegenerative disease, associated with the hallmark proteinacious constituent called amyloid beta (Aβ) of senile plaques. Moreover, it is already established that metals (particularly copper, zinc and iron) have a key role in the pathogenesis of AD. In order to reduce the Aβ plaque burden and overcome the side effects from the synthetic inhibitors, the current study was designed to focus on direct inhibition of with or without metal-induced Aβ fibril formation and aggregation by using olive biophenols. Exposure of neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cells with Aβ42 resulted in decrease of cell viability and morphological changes might be due to severe increase in the reactive oxygen species (ROS). The pre-treated SH-SY5Y cells with olive biophenols were able to attenuate cell death caused by Aβ42, copper- Aβ42, and [laevodihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA)] l-DOPA-Aβ42-induced toxicity after 24 h of treatment. Oleuropein, verbascoside and rutin were the major anti-amyloidogenic compounds. Transgenic mice (APPswe/PS1dE9) received 50 mg/kg of oleuropein containing olive leaf extracts (OLE) or control diet from 7 to 23 weeks of age. Treatment mice (OLE) were showed significantly reduced amyloid plaque deposition (p < 0.001) in cortex and hippocampus as compared to control mice. Our findings provide a basis for considering natural and low cost biophenols from olive as a promising candidate drug against AD. Further studies warrant to validate and determine the anti-amyloid mechanism, bioavailability as well as permeability of olive biophenols against blood brain barrier in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Haris Omar
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia.
| | - Christopher J Scott
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia.
| | - Adam S Hamlin
- School of Science & Technology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia.
| | - Hassan K Obied
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia.
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8
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Hansen KA, Blinco JP. Nitroxide radical polymers – a versatile material class for high-tech applications. Polym Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c7py02001e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive summary of synthetic strategies for the preparation of nitroxide radical polymer materials and a state-of-the-art perspective on their latest and most exciting applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai-Anders Hansen
- School of Chemistry
- Physics and Mechanical Engineering
- Queensland University of Technology
- Brisbane
- Australia
| | - James P. Blinco
- School of Chemistry
- Physics and Mechanical Engineering
- Queensland University of Technology
- Brisbane
- Australia
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9
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Boonruamkaew P, Chonpathompikunlert P, Vong LB, Sakaue S, Tomidokoro Y, Ishii K, Tamaoka A, Nagasaki Y. Chronic treatment with a smart antioxidative nanoparticle for inhibition of amyloid plaque propagation in Tg2576 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Sci Rep 2017. [PMID: 28630497 PMCID: PMC5476667 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-03411-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to assess whether our newly developed redox nanoparticle (RNPN) that has antioxidant potential decreases Aβ levels or prevents Aβ aggregation associated with oxidative stress. The transgenic Tg2576 Alzheimer’s disease (AD) mice were used to investigate the effect of chronic ad libitum drinking of RNPN solution for 6 months, including memory and learning functions, antioxidant activity, and amyloid plaque aggregation. The results showed that RNPN-treated mice had significantly attenuated cognitive deficits of both spatial and non-spatial memories, reduced oxidative stress of lipid peroxide, and DNA oxidation. RNPN treatment increased the percent inhibition of superoxide anion and glutathione peroxidase activity, neuronal densities in the cortex and hippocampus, decreased Aβ(1-40), Aβ(1-42) and gamma (γ)-secretase levels, and reduced Aβ plaque observed using immunohistochemistry analysis and thioflavin S staining. Our results suggest that RNPN may be a promising candidate for AD therapy because of its antioxidant properties and reduction in Aβ aggregation, thereby suppressing its adverse side effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phetcharat Boonruamkaew
- Department of Materials Sciences, Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8573, Japan.,School of Pharmacy, Walailak University, Thasala, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80161, Thailand
| | - Pennapa Chonpathompikunlert
- Department of Materials Sciences, Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8573, Japan.,College of Alternative Medicine, Chandrakasem Rajabhat University, 39/1 Ratchadaphisek Road, Khwaeng Chantharakasem, Chatuchak Districk, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
| | - Long Binh Vong
- Department of Materials Sciences, Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8573, Japan.,Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City (VNU-HCM), Ho Chi Minh City, 702500, Vietnam
| | - Sho Sakaue
- Department of Materials Sciences, Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8573, Japan
| | - Yasushi Tomidokoro
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Department of Neurology, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Ishii
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Department of Neurology, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Akira Tamaoka
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Department of Neurology, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan.,Master's School of Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8573, Japan
| | - Yukio Nagasaki
- Department of Materials Sciences, Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8573, Japan. .,Master's School of Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8573, Japan. .,Satellite Laboratory, International Center for Materials Nanoarchitechtonics (WPI-MANA), National Institute for Materials Sciences (NIMS), University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8573, Japan.
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10
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Arai T, Ohno A, Mori K, Kuwata H, Mizuno M, Imai K, Hara S, Shibanuma M, Kurihara M, Miyata N, Nakagawa H, Fukuhara K. Inhibition of amyloid fibril formation and cytotoxicity by caffeic acid-conjugated amyloid-β C-terminal peptides. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 26:5468-5471. [PMID: 27789140 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition and oxidative stress observed in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) are important targets for therapeutic intervention. In this study, we conjugated the antioxidants caffeic acid (CA) and dihydrocaffeic acid (DHCA) to Aβ1-42 C-terminal motifs (Aβx-42: x=38, 40) to synthesize CA-Aβx-42 and DHCA-Aβx-42, respectively. Among the compounds, CA-Aβ38-42 exhibited potent inhibitory activity against Aβ1-42 aggregation and scavenged Aβ1-42-induced intracellular oxidative stress. Moreover, CA-Aβ38-42 significantly protected human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells against Aβ1-42-induced cytotoxicity, with an IC50 of 4μM. These results suggest that CA-Aβ38-42 might be a potential lead for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Arai
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 467-8603, Japan; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Akiko Ohno
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan
| | - Kazunori Mori
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kuwata
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Mirei Mizuno
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Kohei Imai
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Shuntaro Hara
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Motoko Shibanuma
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Masaaki Kurihara
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan
| | - Naoki Miyata
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 467-8603, Japan
| | - Hidehiko Nakagawa
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 467-8603, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Fukuhara
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan.
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11
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Arai T, Ohno A, Kazunori M, Kakizawa T, Kuwata H, Ozawa T, Shibanuma M, Hara S, Ishida S, Kurihara M, Miyata N, Nakagawa H, Fukuhara K. Design, synthesis, and evaluation of Trolox-conjugated amyloid-β C-terminal peptides for therapeutic intervention in an in vitro model of Alzheimer's disease. Bioorg Med Chem 2016; 24:4138-4143. [PMID: 27407032 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.06.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Two hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD) observed in the brains of patients with the disease include oxidative injury and deposition of protein aggregates comprised of amyloid-β (Aβ) variants. To inhibit these toxic processes, we synthesized antioxidant-conjugated peptides comprised of Trolox and various C-terminal motifs of Aβ variants, TxAβx-n (x=34, 36, 38, 40; n=40, 42, 43). Most of these compounds were found to exhibit anti-aggregation activities. Among them, TxAβ36-42 significantly inhibited Aβ1-42 aggregation, showed potent antioxidant activity, and protected SH-SY5Y cells from Aβ1-42-induced cytotoxicity. Thus, this method represents a promising strategy for developing multifunctional AD therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Arai
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 467-8603, Japan; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Akiko Ohno
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan
| | - Mori Kazunori
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Taeko Kakizawa
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kuwata
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Ozawa
- Division of Oxidative Stress Research, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-Tamagawagakuen, Machida-shi, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Motoko Shibanuma
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Shuntaro Hara
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Seiichi Ishida
- Division of Pharmacology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan
| | - Masaaki Kurihara
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan
| | - Naoki Miyata
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 467-8603, Japan
| | - Hidehiko Nakagawa
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 467-8603, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Fukuhara
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan.
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12
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Noel A, Barrier L, Ingrand S. The Tyr216 phosphorylated form of GSK3β contributes to tau phosphorylation at PHF-1 epitope in response to Aβ in the nucleus of SH-SY5Y cells. Life Sci 2016; 158:14-21. [PMID: 27343974 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2016.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Revised: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
AIMS GSK3β activation in Aβ conditions leading to tau phosphorylation at pathological sites is a well-known phenomenon. However, the serine/tyrosine phosphorylation processes implied in Aβ-induced GSK3β activation and responsible for tau phosphorylation, especially at the GSK3β specific Ser396/Ser404 (PHF-1) site, are still debated. MAIN METHODS Experiments were performed on SH-SY5Y cells exposed to 20μM Aβ1-42 in a time ranging from 5min to 8h. The phophorylated forms (Ser9 and Tyr216) of GSK3β and pTau at PHF-1 epitope were measured by immunoblotting in nuclear extracts. KEY FINDINGS We showed a superimposable time-dependent increase of nuclear pGSK3βTyr216 and nuclear pTau at PHF-1 site, both reaching their maximal level after 8h of Aβ1-42 exposure. In addition, nuclear accumulation of pTau is accompanied by its cytoplasmic decrease suggesting that pTau is translocated in response to Aβ treatment. Besides, our experiments showed that specific pGSK3βTyr216 inhibition is required to drop nuclear pTau, ensuring the involvement of Tyr216 phosphorylation in Aβ-mediated tau phosphorylation at PHF-1 epitope. SIGNIFICANCE These data suggested that in response to Aβ exposure in SH-SY5Y cells, GSK3β activation is performed through Tyr216 phosphorylation and resulted in tau phosphorylation at PHF-1 epitope and in its translocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Noel
- Université de Poitiers, Groupe de Recherche sur le Vieillissement Cérébral, GRéViC, EA 3808, Poitiers, France
| | - Laurence Barrier
- Université de Poitiers, UFR Médecine&Pharmacie, Service de Biochimie et Toxicologie, 6 rue de la Milétrie, TSA 51115, 86073 Poitiers Cedex 9, France
| | - Sabrina Ingrand
- Université de Poitiers, UFR Médecine&Pharmacie, Service de Biochimie et Toxicologie, 6 rue de la Milétrie, TSA 51115, 86073 Poitiers Cedex 9, France.
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13
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Romero A, Ramos E, Ares I, Castellano V, Martínez M, Martínez-Larrañaga MR, Anadón A, Martínez MA. Fipronil sulfone induced higher cytotoxicity than fipronil in SH-SY5Y cells: Protection by antioxidants. Toxicol Lett 2016; 252:42-9. [PMID: 27067106 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Fipronil is a broad spectrum insecticide from the phenyl pyrazole family, which targets GABA receptor. Limited information is available about the metabolite fipronil sulfone cytotoxic actions. This study examined in vitro neurotoxicity of fipronil and fipronil sulfone and evaluated Trolox (vitamin E analog) (0.3, 1μM), N-acetyl-cysteine (0.5, 1mM), melatonin (0.1, 1μM) and Tempol (superoxide dismutase analog) (0.3, 0.5mM) protective role in SH-SY5Y cells. MTT and LDH assays were carried out to assess the cytotoxicity of fipronil and fipronil sulfone at 3-100μM concentrations. Fipronil sulfone was more toxic than fipronil. Tempol showed the best neuroprotectant profile against fipronil (50 and 150μM) and fipronil sulfone (3 and 10μM) reaching control levels. Fipronil (100μM) and fipronil sulfone (3μM) treatments induced a 4.7- and 5-fold increases in lipid peroxides measured as malondialdehyde (MDA) and a 2.2- and 2.0-fold increases in the levels of nitric oxide (NO). These results suggest that oxidative stress observed may be one of the major mechanisms of fipronil-induced neurotoxicity and it may be attributed in part to fipronil disposition and metabolism. Our results led us postulate that metabolite fipronil sulfone might be responsible for the fipronil-induced toxicity rather than fipronil itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Romero
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - E Ramos
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - I Ares
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - V Castellano
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - M Martínez
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - M R Martínez-Larrañaga
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - A Anadón
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - M A Martínez
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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14
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Jiang T, Hoekstra J, Heng X, Kang W, Ding J, Liu J, Chen S, Zhang J. P2X7 receptor is critical in α-synuclein--mediated microglial NADPH oxidase activation. Neurobiol Aging 2015; 36:2304-2318. [PMID: 25983062 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2015.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 03/29/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Activated microglia are commonly observed in individuals with neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD) and are believed to contribute to neuronal death. This process occurs at least due partially to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (PHOX) activation, which leads to the production of superoxide and oxidative stress. α-Synuclein (α-Syn), a key protein implicated in PD pathogenesis, can activate microglia, contributing to death of dopaminergic neurons. Here, microglial cells (BV2) and primary cultured microglia were used to study the role that the purinergic receptor P2X7 plays in recognizing α-Syn and promoting PHOX activation. We demonstrate that both wild type and A53T mutant α-Syn readily activate PHOX, with the A53T form producing more rapid and sustained effects,that is, oxidative stress and cellular injuries. Furthermore, this process involves the activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT (protein kinase B) pathway. Thus, it is concluded that stimulation of the microglial P2X7 receptor by extracellular α-Syn, with PI3K/AKT activation and increased oxidative stress, could be an important mechanism and a potential therapeutic target for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianfang Jiang
- Department of Neurology & Institute of Neurology, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated with Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jake Hoekstra
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Xin Heng
- Department of Neurology & Institute of Neurology, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated with Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenyan Kang
- Department of Neurology & Institute of Neurology, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated with Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianqing Ding
- Department of Neurology & Institute of Neurology, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated with Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jun Liu
- Department of Neurology & Institute of Neurology, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated with Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shengdi Chen
- Department of Neurology & Institute of Neurology, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated with Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China; Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Institute of Health Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science and Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | - Jing Zhang
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Pathology, Peking University Third Hospital/Institute of Basic Science, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China.
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15
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Sinha M, Bhowmick P, Banerjee A, Chakrabarti S. Antioxidant role of amyloid β protein in cell-free and biological systems: implication for the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease. Free Radic Biol Med 2013; 56:184-92. [PMID: 23041348 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2012.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Revised: 09/11/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to many studies showing the pro-oxidative nature of amyloid peptide, this work shows that aggregated Aβ42 peptide in varying concentrations (2-20 μM) in cell-free systems inhibits the formation of hydroxyl radicals and H(2)O(2) from a mixture of iron (20 μM FeSO(4)) and ascorbate (2mM) as measured by benzoate hydroxylation assay and coumarin carboxylic acid assay. Aggregated Aβ42 in similar concentrations further prevents protein and lipid oxidation in isolated rat brain mitochondria incubated alone or with FeSO(4) and ascorbate. Moreover, mitochondria exposed to FeSO(4) and ascorbate show enhanced formation of reactive oxygen species and this phenomenon is also abolished by aggregated Aβ42. It is suggested that the antioxidant property of Aβ42 in various systems is mediated by metal chelation and it is nearly as potent as a typical metal chelator, such as diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid, in preventing oxidative damage. However, aggregated Aβ42 causes mitochondrial functional impairment in the form of membrane depolarization and a loss of phosphorylation capacity without involving reactive oxygen species in the process. Thus, the present results suggest that the amyloid peptide exhibits a protective antioxidant role in biological systems, but also has toxic actions independent of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maitrayee Sinha
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education & Research, Kolkata 700 020, India
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16
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Ha JS, Sung HY, Lim HM, Kwon KS, Park SS. PI3K-ERK1/2 activation contributes to extracellular H2O2 generation in amyloid β toxicity. Neurosci Lett 2012; 526:112-7. [PMID: 22925659 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2012] [Revised: 07/27/2012] [Accepted: 08/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid β peptide (Aβ) induces hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and superoxide generation, leading to neuronal death. Many studies have shown the involvement of NADPH oxidase, but the isotype-specific role was not assessed. Moreover, the activation status of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 is unclear in extracellular H2O2 generation. In this paper, we showed that Aβ1-42 induced extracellular H2O2 generation and the resulting cytotoxicity in a concentration-dependent manner. Nox2- and Nox4-specific siRNAs suppressed H2O2 and superoxide generation. LY294002 and U0126, inhibitors of PI3K and ERK1/2, respectively, reduced H2O2 generation in concentration-dependent manners. Furthermore, PI3K activation is responsible for ERK1/2 phosphorylation. An additional increase in H2O2 generation and corresponding cytotoxicity was observed after treatment with Aβ1-42 and glutamate. These results suggest that Aβ1-42 enhances the neuronal vulnerability to oxidative injury in Alzheimer's disease (AD) by increasing H2O2 generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Seong Ha
- Aging Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 305-806, Republic of Korea
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17
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Chonpathompikunlert P, Yoshitomi T, Han J, Isoda H, Nagasaki Y. The use of nitroxide radical-containing nanoparticles coupled with piperine to protect neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells from Aβ-induced oxidative stress. Biomaterials 2011; 32:8605-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2011] [Accepted: 07/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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18
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Chemical nanotherapy: nitroxyl radical-containing nanoparticle protects neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells from Aβ-induced oxidative stress. Ther Deliv 2011; 2:585-97. [DOI: 10.4155/tde.11.27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Excessive accumulation of β-amyloid (Aβ) has been proposed as a pivotal event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. Possible mechanisms underlying Aβ-induced neuronal cytotoxicity include excess production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and apoptosis. We have designed novel nanoparticles, nitroxyl radical-containing nanoparticles (RNPs), which possess nitroxyl radical in the core and chemically scavenges ROS. This study aimed to determine the potential neuroprotective role of RNPs on Aβ-induced cytotoxicity in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Method: SH-SY5Y cells were preincubated with 0.1–1 mM RNP for 24 h and then incubated with 20 µM Aβ1–42 for 48 h. In every group, cell viability, apoptotic rate, ROS levels including superoxide anion radicals and hydroxyl radicals, ROS production including lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation and DNA oxidation were measured. Results: SH-SY5Y cells preincubated with 0.1–2 mM RNP for 24 h were protected from Aβ-induced damage. SH-SY5Y cells preincubated with more than 2 mM RNP for 24 h showed cytotoxicity. From the quantitative analyses, it was observed that RNPs reduced intracellular oxidative stress. RNP treatment significantly reduced the amount of oxidized lipids, proteins and DNA. It also reduced DNA fragmentations, which caused lower apoptosis levels. Conclusion: RNPs are promising intracellular ROS scavengers.
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