Phillygenin inhibited LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cell inflammation by NF-κB pathway

Hair Follicle-Targeted Delivery of Azelaic Acid Micro/Nanocrystals Promote the Treatment of Acne Vulgaris

Purpose

Acne vulgaris is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder centered on hair follicles, making hair follicle-targeted delivery of anti-acne drugs a promising option for acne treatment. However, current researches have only focused on the delivering to healthy hair follicles, which are intrinsically different from pathologically clogged hair follicles in acne vulgaris.

Patients and Methods

Azelaic acid (AZA) micro/nanocrystals with different particle sizes were prepared by wet media milling or high-pressure homogenization. An experiment on AZA micro/nanocrystals delivering to healthy hair follicles was carried out, with and without the use of physical enhancement techniques. More importantly, it innovatively designed an experiment, which could reveal the ability of AZA micro/nanocrystals to penetrate the constructed clogged hair follicles. The anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects of AZA micro/nanocrystals were evaluated in vitro using a RAW264.7 cell model stimulated by lipopolysaccharide and a Cutibacterium acnes model. Finally, both the anti-acne effects and skin safety of AZA micro/nanocrystals and commercial products were compared in vivo.

Results

In comparison to commercial products, 200 nm and 500 nm AZA micro/nanocrystals exhibited an increased capacity to target hair follicles. In the combination group of AZA micro/nanocrystals and ultrasound, the ability to penetrate hair follicles was further remarkably enhanced (ER value up to 9.6). However, toward the clogged hair follicles, AZA micro/nanocrystals cannot easily penetrate into by themselves. Only with the help of 1% salicylic acid, AZA micro/nanocrystals had a great potential to penetrate clogged hair follicle. It was also shown that AZA micro/nanocrystals had anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects by inhibiting pro-inflammatory factors and Cutibacterium acnes. Compared with commercial products, the combination of AZA micro/nanocrystals and ultrasound exhibited an obvious advantage in both skin safety and in vivo anti-acne therapeutic efficacy.

Conclusion

Hair follicle-targeted delivery of AZA micro/nanocrystals provided a satisfactory alternative in promoting the treatment of acne vulgaris.

The phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, quality control, and toxicity of Forsythiae Fructus: An updated systematic review

Forsythiae Fructus (FF), the dried fruit of F. suspensa, is commonly used to treat fever, inflammation, etc in China or other Asian countries. FF is usually used as the core herb in traditional Chinese medicine preparations for the treatment of influenza, such as Shuang-huang-lian oral liquid and Yin-qiao powder, etc. Since the wide application and core role of FF, its research progress was summarized in terms of traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, quality control, and toxicity. Meanwhile, the anti-influenza substances and mechanism of FF were emphasized. Till now, a total of 290 chemical components are identified in F. suspensa, and among them, 248 components were isolated and identified from FF, including 42 phenylethanoid glycosides, 48 lignans, 59 terpenoids, 14 flavonoids, 3 steroids, 24 cyclohexyl ethanol derivatives, 14 alkaloids, 26 organic acids, and 18 other types. FF and their pure compounds have the pharmacological activities of anti-virus, anti-inflammation, anti-oxidant, anti-bacteria, anti-tumor, neuroprotection, hepatoprotection, etc. Inhibition of TLR7, RIG-I, MAVS, NF-κB, MyD88 signaling pathway were the reported anti-influenza mechanisms of FF and phenylethanoid glycosides and lignans are the main active groups. However, the bioavailability of phenylethanoid glycosides and lignans of FF in vivo was low, which needed to be improved. Simultaneously, the un-elucidated compounds and anti-influenza substances of FF strongly needed to be explored. The current quality control of FF was only about forsythoside A and phillyrin, more active components should be taken into consideration. Moreover, there are no reports of toxicity of FF yet, but the toxicity of FF should be not neglected in clinical applications.

Design, synthesis and molecular docking of novel D-ring substituted steroidal 4,5-dihydropyrazole thiazole derivatives that act as iNOS/COX-2 inhibitors with potent anti-inflammatory activity against LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophage cells

Inflammation, an important biological protective response to tissue damage or microbial invasion, is considered to be an alarming signal for the progress of varied biological complications. Based on the previous reports in the literature that proved the noticeable efficacy of pyrazole and thiazole scaffold as well as nitrogen heterocyclic based compounds against acute and chronic inflammatory disease, a new set of novel D-ring substituted steroidal 4,5-dihydropyrazole thiazole derivatives were synthesized and evaluated their anti-inflammatory activities in vitro. Preliminary structure-activity relationship (SAR) analysis was conducted by their inhibitory activities against nitric oxide (NO) release in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells, and the optimal compound 12b [3β-hydroxy-pregn-5-en-17β-yl-5'- (o- chlorophenyl)- 1'-(4''- phenyl -[1'', 3'']- thiazol-2''- yl) - 4',5'-dihydro - 1'H-pyrazol - 3'- yl] exhibited more potent anti-inflammatory activity than the positive control treatment methylprednisolone (MPS), with an IC50 value of 2.59 μM on NO production and low cytotoxicity against RAW 264.7 cells. In further mechanism study, our results showed that compound 12b significantly suppressed the production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and inhibited the expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) through blocking NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of IκBα. Compound 12b also attenuated LPS-induced activation of c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 phosphorylation in RAW 264.7 cells. Molecular docking study revealed the strong binding affinity of compound 12b to the active site of the COX-2 proteins, which confirmed that compound 12b acted as an anti-inflammatory mediator. These results indicate that steroidal derivatives bearing 4,5-dihydropyrazole thiazole structure might be considered for further research and scaffold optimization in designing anti-inflammatory drugs and compound 12b might be a promising therapeutic anti-inflammatory drug candidate.

Anti-inflammatory effect of proanthocyanidins from blueberry through NF-κβ/NLRP3 signaling pathway in vivo and in vitro

BACKGROUND

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is an uncontrolled systemic inflammatory response. Proanthocyanidins (PC) is a general term of polyphenol compounds widely existed in blueberry fruits and can treat inflammation-related diseases. This study aimed to explore the regulatory effect of PC on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced systemic inflammation and its potential mechanism, providing effective strategies for the further development of PC.

METHODS

Here, RAW264.7 macrophages were stimulated with LPS to establish an inflammation model in vitro, while endotoxin shock mouse models were constructed by LPS in vivo. The function of PC was investigated by MTT, ELISA kits, H&E staining, immunohistochemistry, and Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

Functionally, PC could demonstrate the potential to mitigate mortality in mice with endotoxin shock, as well as attenuated the levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α) and biochemical indicators (AST, ALT, CRE and BUN). Moreover, it had a significant protective effect on lung and kidney tissues damage. Mechanistically, PC exerted anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the activation of the NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

PC might have the potential ability of anti-inflammatory effects via modulation of the NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway.

Flavopiridol Suppresses Cell Proliferation and Migration and Induces Apoptotic Cell Death by Inhibiting Oncogenic FOXM1 Signaling in IDH Wild-Type and IDH-Mutant GBM Cells

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) remains one of the most challenging solid cancers to treat due to its highly aggressive and drug-resistant nature. Flavopiridol is synthetic flavone that was recently approved by the FDA for the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia. Flavopiridol exhibits antiproliferative activity in several solid cancer cells and currently evaluated in clinical trials in several solid and hematological cancers. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying antiproliferative effects of flavopiridol in GBM cell lines with wild-type and mutant encoding isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1). We found that flavopiridol inhibits proliferation, colony formation, and migration and induces apoptosis in IDH1 wild-type and IDH-mutant cells through inhibition of FOXM1 oncogenic signaling. Furthermore, flavopiridol treatment also inhibits of NF-KB, mediators unfolded protein response (UPR), including, GRP78, PERK and IRE1α, and DNA repair enzyme PARP, which have been shown to be potential therapeutic targets by downregulating FOXM1 in GBM cells. Our findings suggest for the first time that flavopiridol suppresses proliferation, survival, and migration and induces apoptosis in IDH1 wild-type and IDH1-mutant GBM cells by targeting FOXM1 oncogenic signaling which also regulates NF-KB, PARP, and UPR response in GBM cells. Flavopiridol may be a potential novel therapeutic strategy in the treatment of patients IDH1 wild-type and IDH1-mutant GBM.

Phillygenin Alleviates Arthritis through the Inhibition of the NLRP3 Inflammasome and Ferroptosis by AMPK

We investigated the potential arthritis-inducing effects of Phillygenin and its underlying mechanisms. RAW264.7 cells were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide to induce inflammation. Phillygenin was found to reduce arthritis score, histopathological changes, paw edema, spleen index, and ALP levels in a dose-dependent manner in a model of arthritis. Additionally, Phillygenin was able to decrease levels of inflammation markers in serum samples of mice with arthritis and also inhibited inflammation markers in the cell supernatant of an in vitro model of arthritis. Phillygenin increased cell viability and JC-1 disaggregation, enhanced calcien-AM/CoCl2, reduced LDH activity levels and IL-1a levels, and inhibited Calcein/PI levels and iron concentration in an in vitro model. Phillygenin was also found to reduce ROS-induced oxidative stress and Ferroptosis, and suppress the NLRP3 inflammasome in both in vivo and in vitro models through AMPK. In the in vivo model, Phillygenin was observed to interact with AMPK protein. These findings suggest that Phillygenin may be a potential therapeutic target for preventing arthritis by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome and Ferroptosis through AMPK. This indicates that Phillygenin could have disease-modifying effects on arthritis.

A comprehensive review on pharmacological, toxicity, and pharmacokinetic properties of phillygenin: Current landscape and future perspectives

Forsythiae Fructus is a traditional Chinese medicine frequently in clinics. It is extensive in the treatment of various inflammation-related diseases and is renowned as 'the holy medicine of sores'. Phillygenin (C21H24O6, PHI) is a component of lignan that has been extracted from Forsythiae Fructus and exhibits notable biological activity. Modern pharmacological studies have confirmed that PHI demonstrates significant activities in the treatment of various diseases, including inflammatory diseases, liver diseases, cancer, bacterial infection and virus infection. Therefore, this review comprehensively summarizes the pharmacological effects of PHI up to June 2023 by searching PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, CNKI, and SciFinder databases. According to the data, PHI shows remarkable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antitumour, antibacterial, antiviral, immunoregulatory, analgesic, antihypertensive and vasodilatory activities. More importantly, NF-κB, MAPK, PI3K/AKT, P2X7R/NLRP3, Nrf2-ARE, JAK/STAT, Ca2+-calcineurin-TFEB, TGF-β/Smads, Notch1 and AMPK/ERK/NF-κB signaling pathways are considered as important molecular targets for PHI to exert these pharmacological activities. Studies of its toxicity and pharmacokinetic properties have shown that PHI has very low toxicity, incomplete absorption in vivo and low oral bioavailability. In addition, the physico-chemical properties, new formulations, derivatives and existing challenges and prospects of PHI are also reviewed and discussed in this paper, aiming to provide direction and rationale for the further development and clinical application of PHI.

Aqueous extract of Amydrium sinense (Engl.) H. Li alleviates hepatic fibrosis by suppressing hepatic stellate cell activation through inhibiting Stat3 signaling

Background: The present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of the water extract of Amydrium sinense (Engl.) H. Li (ASWE) against hepatic fibrosis (HF) and clarify the underlying mechanism. Methods: The chemical components of ASWE were analysed by a Q-Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometer. In our study, an in vivo hepatic fibrosis mouse model was established via an intraperitoneal injection of olive oil containing 20% CCl₄. In vitro experiments were conducted using a hepatic stellate cell line (HSC-T6) and RAW 264.7 cell line. A CCK-8 assay was performed to assess the cell viability of HSC-T6 and RAW264.7 cells treated with ASWE. Immunofluorescence staining was used to examine the intracellular localization of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3). Stat3 was overexpressed to analyse the role of Stat3 in the effect of ASWE on HF. Results: Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses showed that candidate targets of ASWE, associated with protective effects against hepatic fibrosis, were related to inflammation response. ASWE ameliorated CCl₄-induced liver pathological damage and reduced the liver index and alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) levels. ASWE also decreased the serum levels of collagen Ⅰ (Col Ⅰ) and hydroxyproline (Hyp) in CCl₄-treated mice. In addition, the expression of fibrosis markers, including α-SMA protein and Acta2, Col1a1, and Col3a1 mRNA, was downregulated by ASWE treatment in vivo. The expression of these fibrosis markers was also decreased by treatment with ASWE in HSC-T6 cells. Moreover, ASWE decreased the expression of inflammatory markers, including the Tnf-α, Il6 and Il1β, in RAW264.7 cells. ASWE decreased the phosphorylation of Stat3 and total Stat3 expression and reduced the mRNA expression of the Stat3 gene in vivo and in vitro. ASWE also inhibited the nuclear shuttling of Stat3. Overexpression of Stat3 weakened the therapeutic effect of ASWE and accelerated the progression of HF. Conclusion: The results show that ASWE protects against CCl₄-induced liver injury by suppressing fibrosis, inflammation, HSC activation and the Stat3 signaling pathway, which might lead to a new approach for preventing HF.

The Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Low Molecular Weight Fucoidan from Sargassum siliquastrum in Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Macrophages via Inhibiting NF-κB/MAPK Signaling Pathways

Brown seaweed is a rich source of fucoidan, which exhibits a variety of biological activities. The present study discloses the protective effect of low molecular weight fucoidan (FSSQ) isolated from an edible brown alga, Sargassum siliquastrum, on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 macrophages. The findings of the study revealed that FSSQ increases cell viability while decreasing intracellular reactive oxygen species production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages dose-dependently. FSSQ reduced the iNOS and COX-2 expression, inhibiting the NO and prostaglandin E2 production. Furthermore, mRNA expression of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α was downregulated by FSSQ via modulating MAPK and NF-κB signaling. The NLRP3 inflammasome protein complex, including NLRP3, ASC, and caspase-1, as well as the subsequent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β and IL-18, release in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages was inhibited by FSSQ. The cytoprotective effect of FSSQ is indicated via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling activation, which is considerably reduced upon suppression of HO-1 activity by ZnPP. Collectively, the study revealed the therapeutic potential of FSSQ against inflammatory responses in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Moreover, the study suggests further investigations on commercially viable methods for fucoidan isolation.

Xiaoxuming decoction cutting formula reduces LPS-stimulated inflammation in BV-2 cells by regulating miR-9-5p in microglia exosomes

The Background: Stroke is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, and the inflammatory mechanism plays a crucial role in stroke-related brain injury and post-ischemic tissue damage. Xiaoxuming decoction (XXMD) is the first prescription for the treatment of "zhongfeng" (a broad concept referring to stroke) in the Tang and Song Dynasties of China and has a significant position in the history of stroke treatment. Through the study of ancient medical records and modern clinical evidence, it is evident that XXMD has significant efficacy in the treatment of stroke and its sequelae, and its pharmacological mechanism may be related to post-stroke inflammation. However, XXMD contains 12 medicinal herbs with complex composition, and therefore, a simplified version of XXMD, called Xiaoxuming decoction cutting (XXMD-C), was derived based on the anti-inflammatory effects of the individual herbs. Therefore, it is necessary to explore and confirm the anti-inflammatory mechanism of XXMD-C. Aim of the study: Based on the previous experiments of our research group, it was found that both XXMD and XXMD-C have anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-induced microglia, and XXMD-C has a better anti-inflammatory effect. Since miRNAs in exosomes also participate in the occurrence and development of cardiovascular diseases, and traditional Chinese medicine can regulate exosomal miRNAs through intervention, this study aims to explore the anti-inflammatory mechanism of XXMD-C in the treatment of post-stroke inflammation through transcriptome sequencing, providing a basis for the application of XXMD-C. Materials and methods: XXMD-C was extracted using water and filtered through a 0.22 μm membrane filter. The main chemical components of the medicinal herbs in XXMD-C were rapidly qualitatively analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS). Cell viability was determined using the CCK-8 assay, and an LPS-induced BV-2 cell inflammation model was established. The expression of inflammatory cytokines was detected using ELISA and Western blot (WB). Extracellular vesicles were extracted using ultracentrifugation, and identified using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), nanoparticle tracking analysis, and WB. Differential miRNAs were screened using smallRNA-seq sequencing, and validated using RT-PCR and Western blot. Results: The UPLC-Q-TOF-MS analysis revealed that representative components including ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, cinnamaldehyde, baicalin, baicalein, wogonin, and ginsenoside Rg1 were detected in XXMD-C. The results of ELISA and WB assays showed that XXMD-C had a therapeutic effect on LPS-induced inflammation in BV-2 cells. TEM, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and WB results demonstrated the successful extraction of extracellular vesicles using high-speed centrifugation. Differential miRNA analysis by smallRNA-seq identified miR-9-5p, which was validated by RT-PCR and WB. Inhibition of miR-9-5p was found to downregulate the expression of inflammatory factors including IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, and TNF-α. Conclusion: The study found that XXMD-C has anti-neuroinflammatory effects. Through smallRNA-seq sequencing of extracellular vesicles, miR-9-5p was identified as a key miRNA in the mechanism of XXMD-C for treating neuroinflammation, and its in vivo anti-inflammatory mechanism deserves further investigation.

ATP-triggered highly sensitive probes for super-resolution mitochondrial imaging and low-dose bioimaging

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), mainly produced in mitochondria, plays an important role in various pathological processes such as inflammation and acute liver injury. Fluorescence imaging is a powerful tool for imaging tissue structure and function in vivo. To date, the lack of biocompatible ATP probes with bright fluorescence emission has hindered their application in basic research and clinical trials. Here, we report a method for preparing ATP probes using a ZIF-90 potting dye, which produces bright ATP probes by encapsulating a modified high fluorescence quantum yield dye into a ZIF-90 skeleton. The nanoprobe does not fluoresce due to the coating. ATP can cooperate with Zn²⁺ to decompose the nanoprobe structure, release the dye and restore the fluorescence. Both nanoprobes ORhBSO₂@ZIF-90 and SiRhBSO₂@ZIF-90 showed higher sensitivity than the reported ATP nanoprobes with detection limits of 7.56 μM and 6.6 μM, and with lower doses (10 μg mL^-1) of probes for cell imaging. In addition, SiRhBSO₂@ZIF-90 has also been successfully used in the liver injury model. The ZIF-90 encapsulation strategy can retain the high fluorescence quantum yield and improve the biocompatibility of the dye.

α-Linolenic Acid Inhibits RANKL-Induced Osteoclastogenesis In Vitro and Prevents Inflammation In Vivo

Inflammation is an important risk factor for bone-destroying diseases. Our preliminary research found that Zanthoxylum bungeanum seed oil (ZBSO) is abundant in unsaturated fatty acids and could inhibit osteoclastogenesis in receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL)-induced RAW264.7 cells. However, the key constituents in ZBSO in the prevention of osteoclastogenesis and its possible mechanism related to inflammation are still unclear. Therefore, in this study, oleic acid (OA), linoleic acid (LA), palmitoleic acid (PLA), and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) in ZBSO, havingthe strongest effect on RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis, were selected by a tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining method. Furthermore, the effects of the selected fatty acids on anti-inflammation and anti-osteoclastogenesis in vitro and in vivo were assessed using RT-qPCR. Among the four major unsaturated fatty acids we tested, ALA displayed the strongest inhibitory effect on osteoclastogenesis. The increased expression of free fatty acid receptor 4 (FFAR4) and β-arrestin2 (βarr2), as well as the decreased expression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), nuclear factor of activated T-cells c1 (NFATc1), and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) in RAW264.7 cells after ALA treatment were observed. Moreover, in ovariectomized osteoporotic rats with ALA preventive intervention, we found that the expression of TNF-α, interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), NFATc1, and TRAP were decreased, while with the ALA therapeutic intervention, downregulated expression of NF-κB, NFATc1, TRAP, and transforming growth factor beta-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) were noticed. These results indicate that ALA, as the major unsaturated fatty acid in ZBSO, could inhibit RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis via the FFAR4/βarr2 signaling pathway and could prevent inflammation, suggesting that ZBSO may be a promising potential natural product of unsaturated fatty acids and a dietary supplement for the prevention of osteoclastogenesis and inflammatory diseases.

Phillygenin Attenuated Colon Inflammation and Improved Intestinal Mucosal Barrier in DSS-induced Colitis Mice via TLR4/Src Mediated MAPK and NF-κB Signaling Pathways

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic, relapsing, and nonspecific inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Phillygenin (PHI), a natural bioactive ingredient, isolated from Forsythiae Fructus, exhibits anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and hepatoprotective activities. However, few reports provide direct evidence on the efficacy of PHI in improving colitis mice. The present study elucidated that the symptoms of DSS-induced colitis mice were alleviated after PHI administration, including body weight loss, the disease activity index, colon length shortening, colonic pathological damage, splenomegaly, and hepatomegaly. PHI treatment improved the intestinal mucosal barrier by protecting goblet cells, promoting gene expressions of Clca1, Slc26a3, and Aqp8, increasing tight junction proteins (TJs), and reducing epithelial cell apoptosis. In addition, the levels of oxidative stress (MPO, SOD, and MDA) and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10) were reversed by PHI in colitis mice. According to transcriptome and network pharmacology analysis, inflammatory pathway might be an important mechanism for PHI to improve colitis. Western blotting displayed that the PHI inhibited the activation of tyrosine kinase Src mediated by TLR4, and then reduced the phosphorylation of downstream proteins p38, JNK, and NF-κB in colitis mice. In summary, our results suggested that PHI might be an appropriate and effective drug candidate to protect colitis.

Antifungal and Immunomodulatory Ingredients from Traditional Chinese Medicine

Fungal infections have become a growing public health challenge due to the clinical transmission of pathogenic fungi. The currently available antifungal drugs leave very limited choices for clinical physicians to deal with such situation, not to mention the long-standing problems of emerging drug resistance, side effects and heavy economic burdens imposed to patients. Therefore, new antifungal drugs are urgently needed. Screening drugs from natural products and using synthetic biology strategies are very promising for antifungal drug development. Chinese medicine is a vast library of natural products of biologically active molecules. According to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory, preparations used to treat fungal diseases usually have antifungal and immunomodulatory functions. This suggests that if antifungal drugs are used in combination with immunomodulatory drugs, better results may be achieved. Studies have shown that the active components of TCM have strong antifungal or immunomodulatory effects and have broad application prospects. In this paper, the latest research progress of antifungal and immunomodulatory components of TCM is reviewed and discussed, hoping to provide inspiration for the design of novel antifungal compounds and to open up new horizons for antifungal treatment strategies.

Yao medicine Amydrium hainanense suppresses hepatic fibrosis by repressing hepatic stellate cell activation via STAT3 signaling

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Hepatic fibrosis (HF) occurs in response to chronic liver injury and may easily develop into irreversible liver cirrhosis or even liver cancer. Amydrium hainanense water extract (AHWE) is a water-soluble component extracted from the Yao medicine Amydrium hainanense (H.Li, Y.Shiao & S.L.Tseng) H.Li, which is commonly used for treating inflammatory diseases in folk. Previous evidence suggested that AHWE significantly inhibited hepatic stellate cell activation. However, little is known regarding the therapeutic effect of AHWE in HF and its underlying action mechanism. Objective: Investigation of the therapeutic effect of AHWE in HF and its underlying mechanism. Methods: The therapeutic effect of AHWE was tested in vivo using an HF mouse model via an intraperitoneal injection of carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄). Histological evaluation of liver injury and fibrosis were tested by H&E staining and Masson's trichrome staining. Serum levels of ALT, AST, collagen type I (Col I), and hydroxyproline (HYP) were measured. The mRNA expression of liver fibrotic and inflammatory genes were tested, and the protein levels of alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3) were analyzed. The in vitro experiments were conducted using HSC-T6 and RAW264.7 cell lines. Results: Treatment with AHWE significantly reversed histopathological liver damage and liver function abnormalities in CCl₄ mouse model. Also, the serum levels of ALT, AST, Col I, and HYP in CCl₄-induced HF mice were improved in AHWE treatment. Further, AHWE showed a remarkable inhibitory effect on the expression of fibrosis markers (Acta2, Col1a1, and Col3a1) and inflammatory factors (Stat3, Tnfa, Il6, and Il1b) induced by CCl₄. The results of in vitro experiments were consistent with those obtained in vivo. In addition, it is shown that STAT3 signaling was involved in the anti-fibrotic effects of AHWE as evidenced by STAT3 overexpression. Conclusion: The present study proposed a novel ethnomedicine for HF and suggested the underlying role of STAT3 signaling pathway regulation in this anti-fibrotic effect of the proposed medicine. These findings would serve as solid scientific evidence in support of the development of AHWE as a novel alternative or complementary therapy for HF prevention and treatment.

Phillygenin from Forsythia suspensa leaves exhibits analgesic potential and anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice

Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl (Oleaceae) leaves are valuable sources of phillygenin. This study aimed to isolate phillygenin from F. suspensa leaves and examine its analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. Phillygenin was successfully extracted and isolated from F. suspensa leaves after fermentation. Phillygenin significantly reduced the number of writhing induced by acetic acid, prolonged the latency period in the hot plate test, and inhibited the xylene-induced ear edema and carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice. IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, NO, and PGE₂ levels in the carrageenan-induced paw edema were notably reduced after pretreatment with phillygenin. Phillygenin significantly decreased the iNOS and COX-2 protein expressions and the IκB-α and NF-κB p65 phosphorylation. This study demonstrated that phillygenin is a potential therapeutic candidate for managing pain and inflammation-mediated disorders. The study contributes to the comprehensive development and utilization of F. suspensa leaves for economic and health care. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Phillygenin is one of the major active ingredients in Forsythia suspensa. But the content of phillygenin in F. suspensa is very low which limits its application. Phillygenin has potential pharmacological activity and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the potential effects of phillygenin on analgesic activity have not been clarified. Furthermore, the data on its anti-inflammatory activity in vivo are relatively limited. This study evaluated the analgesic activity for the first time and the acute anti-inflammatory effect of phillygenin from F. suspensa leaves by fermentation, which indicated phillygenin is a potential therapeutic candidate for managing pain and inflammation-mediated disorders.

Arteannuin-B and (3-Chlorophenyl)-2-Spiroisoxazoline Derivative Exhibit Anti-Inflammatory Effects in LPS-Activated RAW 264.7 Macrophages and BALB/c Mice-Induced Proinflammatory Responses via Downregulation of NF-κB/P38 MAPK Signaling

Host inflammatory responses are key to protection against injury; however, persistent inflammation is detrimental and contributes to morbidity and mortality. Herein, we demonstrated the anti-inflammatory role of Arteannuin-B (1) and its new spirocyclic-2-isoxazoline derivative JR-9 and their side effects in acute inflammatory condition in vivo using LPS-induced cytokines assay, carrageenan-induced paw edema, acetic acid-induced writhing and tail immersion. The results show that the spirocyclic-2-isoxazoline derivative is a potent anti-inflammatory agent with minimal cell toxicity as compared to Arteannuin-B. In addition, the efficacies of these compounds were also validated by flow cytometric, computational, and histopathological analysis. Our results show that the anti-inflammatory response of JR-9 significantly reduces the ability of mouse macrophages to produce NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 following LPS stimulation. Therefore, JR-9 is a prospective candidate for the development of anti-inflammatory drugs and its molecular mechanism is likely related to the regulation of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathway.

Sustainable lignin and lignin-derived compounds as potential therapeutic agents for degenerative orthopaedic diseases: A systemic review

Lignin, the most abundant natural and sustainable phenolic compound in biomass, has exhibited medicinal values due to its biological activities decided by physicochemical properties. Recently, the lignin and its derivatives (such as lignosulfonates and lignosulfonate) have been proven efficient in regulating cellular process and the extracellular microenvironment, which has been regarded as the key factor in disease progression. In orthopaedic diseases, especially the degenerative diseases represented by osteoarthritis and osteoporosis, excessive activated inflammation has been proven as a key stage in the pathological process. Due to the excellent biocompatibility, antibacterial and antioxidative activities of lignin and its derivatives, they have been applied to stimulate cells and restore the uncoupling bone remodeling in the degenerative orthopaedic diseases. However, there is a lack of a systemic review to state the current research actuality of lignin and lignin-derived compounds in treating degenerative orthopaedic diseases. Herein, we summarized the current application of lignin and lignin-derived compounds in orthopaedic diseases and proposed their possible therapeutic mechanism in treating degenerative orthopaedic diseases. It is hoped this work could guide the future preparation of lignin/lignin-derived drugs and implants as available therapeutic strategies for clinically degenerative orthopaedic diseases.

Exploration of Osmanthus fragrans Lour.'s composition, nutraceutical functions and applications

Osmanthus fragrans (Thunb.) Lour. has been cultivated in China for over 2500 years. Due to the unique and strong fragrance, O. fragrans flowers have long been added into food, tea, and beverages. Not only the O. fragrans flowers, but also leaves, barks, roots, and fruits possess some beneficial effects such as relieving pain and alleviating cough in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Modern pharmacological researches demonstrated that O. fragrans possesses a broad spectrum of biological activities including antioxidant, neuroprotective, antidiabetic and anticancer activities etc. A large number of phytochemicals identified in O. fragrans are responsible for its health promoting and disease preventing effects. The components of volatile compounds in O. fragrans are complex but the content is less abundant. The present review mainly focuses on the bioactive ingredients identified from O. fragrans, the therapeutic effects of O. fragrans and its applications in food, cosmetics and medicines.

Dietary phillygenin supplementation ameliorates aflatoxin B1-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in chicken liver

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), a mycotoxin contaminating food and feed, can trigger liver immune toxicity and threaten the poultry industry. Phillygenin (PHI) is a natural lignan derived primarily from Forsythia suspensa with hepatoprotective pharmacological and medicinal properties. This research aimed to investigate the preventive effects of PHI on the toxicity of AFB₁ in the liver of chickens. Chickens were administered with AFB₁ (2.8 mg/kg) and/or treated with PHI (24 mg/kg) for 33 days. The histopathological changes, serum biochemical indices, oxidative damage, inflammatory mediators, apoptosis, and activation of the NF-κB and Nrf2 signaling pathways were measured. Results revealed that dietary PHI ameliorated liver function indicators, reduced the malondialdehyde and inflammatory mediator production and the apoptotic cell number, and increased the antioxidant enzyme contents and Bcl-2 level. The quantitative realtime PCR and Western blot results revealed that PHI reduced p53, cytochrome c, Bax, caspase-9, and caspase-3 levels, normalized the NF-κB p65 phosphorylation, and upregulated the Nrf2 and its downstream genes expression in chicken liver. These results indicated that PHI has beneficial effects on AFB₁-induced liver damage, oxidative damage, inflammatory response, apoptosis, and immunotoxicity by inhibiting NF-κB and activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway in chickens. This study provides new insight into the therapeutic uses of PHI.

Phillygenin activates PKR/eIF2α pathway and induces stress granule to exert anti-avian infectious bronchitis virus

The prevalence of avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is still one of causes inducing severe losses of production in the poultry industry worldwide. Vaccination does not completely prevent IBV infection and spread due to immune failure and viral mutations. ForsythiaeFructus and its compounds have been widely used in a lot of prescriptions of the traditional Chinese medicine for a long history, and it is well-known as safety and efficiency in heat-clearing and detoxifying. This study aims to investigate the anti-IBV activity and mechanism of phillygenin. The results showed that phillygenin inhibited IBV replication by disturbing multiple stages of the virus life cycle, including viral adsorption, invasion, internalization, and release in Vero cells. After being treated with 100, 125 and 150 μg/mL phillygenin, the expression of G3BP1 was significantly increased and the phosphorylation of PKR/eIF2α was activated, which increased stress granule, thereby triggering the antiviral response in Vero cells. The anti-virus activity of PHI was decreased when G3BP1 was interfered by si-RNA, and G3BP1 was down-regulated when PKR/eIF2α was interfered by si-RNA. In conclusion, our findings indicate that phillygenin activates PKR/eIF2α pathway and induces stress granule formation to exert anti-IBV, which holds promise to develop into a novel anti-IBV drug. Further study in vivo is needed to explore phillygenin as a potential and effective drug to prevent IB in poultry.

Phillygenin Protects the Intestinal Barrier from Dysfunction via let-7b Signaling Pathway and Regulation of Intestinal Microbiota

The study investigates the positive effects of phillygenin on intestinal tight junction via the let-7b signaling pathway and the regulation of intestinal microbiota. The expression levels of tight junction proteins are determined through PCR and Western blot. DSS-induced mice colitis is used to verify the protective effects of phillygenin on intestinal barrier and tight junction. Fecal microbiota transplantation is used to verify the role intestinal microbiota. let-7b is detected in the colon tissues of patients with acute stercoral obstruction. Phillygenin could promote the expression of occludin, which might be inhibited by let-7b inhibitor. DSS-induced mice colitis showed that phillygenin could lower the colonic permeability and maintain the tight junction-associated proteins. The effects of phillygenin could be deprived by anti-let-7b and rescued by FMT of normal intestinal microbiota. Clinical samples verified a lower level of let-7b in stercoral obstruction patients. Phillygenin could protect the intestinal barrier from dysfunction via the signaling pathway of let-7b by regulating intestinal microbiota.

Hostaflavone A from Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch. blocked NF-κB/iNOS/COX-2/MAPKs/Akt signaling pathways in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hostaflavone A (HA) is a new flavonoid component isolated from the flower of Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch., which is commonly used as a folk herbal to treat inflammatory diseases in China. Nevertheless, the anti-inflammatory effect of HA remains unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This work aimed to evaluate the HA with anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism in RAW 264.7 macrophages activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anti-inflammatory effect of HA was evaluated by measuring of cell viability, nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 levels in RAW 264.7 cells. In parallel, the HA action mechanism of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65, inhibitor of NF-κB (IκB), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk), p38, and protein kinase B (Akt) were detected by Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

HA has no cytotoxicity at concentrations as high as 40 μM. Besides, HA concentration-dependently clearly suppressed the overproduction of NO, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in RAW 264.7 cells induced by LPS. In addition, HA remarkably reduced the upregulation of phosphorylated NF-κB p65, phosphorylated IκB, phosphorylated JNK, phosphorylated Erk and phosphorylated p38, together with iNOS and COX-2 protein expressions in a concentration-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

HA blocked the LPS activated inflammation via suppressing NF-κB, iNOS, COX-2, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and Akt pathways in RAW 264.7 cells, and might be a new anti-inflammatory agent.

Comparative Evaluation of Forsythiae Fructus From Different Harvest Seasons and Regions by HPLC/NIR Analysis and Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Assays

Forsythiae Fructus (FF), the dry fruit of Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl, has a long history of use in traditional Chinese Medicine for its heat-clearing and detoxifying properties. It possesses clinical therapeutic effects and biological functions showing efficacy in handling different diseases. To investigate the FF differences in Henan, Shanxi, and Shaanxi in August and October, the surface morphology, mid-infrared and near-infrared spectrums, and HPLC were analyzed. Concurrently, the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects on LPS-induced J774A.1 cells were evaluated by western blot and RT-qPCR. The results showed that FF from different Harvest Seasons and Regions are provided with different microstructures and mid-infrared and near-infrared spectrums, and the levels of forsythiaside A and phillyrin of FF from Shanxi in August and phillygenin of FF from Shaanxi in August were the highest. Meanwhile, FF from Shanxi and Shaanxi in August markedly reduced the levels of inflammatory cytokines and mediators (TNF-α, IL-1β, NF-κB, and iNOS) and the protein expression levels of phosphorylated total IKKα/β and nuclear NF-κB. In August, SXFF and SAXFF also promoted the mRNA expression levels of HO-1 and NQO1 and the protein expression levels of HO-1 and nuclear Nrf2 and suppressed the protein expression levels of KEAP1. Spearman correlation analysis showed that phillygenin had a strong correlation with the protein expression on LPS-induced J774A.1 cells. In summary, our results showed that FF from harvest seasons and regions contributed to the distinct differences in microstructure, the mid-infrared and near-infrared spectrums, and compound content. More importantly, FF from Shanxi and Shaanxi in August showed marked anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, but with some differences, which may be because of different contents of phillygenin and phillyrin of lignans in FF.