Cosmetic and pharmaceutical qualifications of Egyptian bentonite and its suitability as drug carrier for Praziquantel drug

Bentonite-supplemented diets improved fish performance ammonia excretion haemato-biochemical analyses immunity antioxidants and histological characteristics of European seabass Dicentrarchus labrax

The purpose of this research was to examine the potential effects of bentonite (BN) supplemented diets on growth, feed utilization, blood biochemistry, and histomorphology of Dicentrarchus labrax. Six treatments in triplicate were tested: B0, B0.5, B1.0, B1.5, B3.0, and B4.5, which represented fish groups fed diets supplemented with 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 3, and 4.5% BN, respectively. For 84 days, juveniles' seabass (initial weight = 32.73 g) were fed diets containing 46% protein, three times daily at 3% of body weight. With a 5% daily water exchange, underground seawater (32 ppt) was used. Findings revealed significant improvements in water quality (TAN and NH3), growth (FW, WG and SGR) and feed utilization (FCR, PER and PPV) in fish fed BN-supplemented diets, with the best values in favor of the B1.5 group. Additional enhancements in kidney function indicators (urea and uric acid) and liver enzymes were observed in fish of the BN-treated groups along with a decrease in cholesterol level in the B1.5 group. Further improvements in fish innate immunity (hemoglobin, red blood cells, glucose, total protein, globulin, and immunoglobulin IgM), antioxidant activity (total antioxidative capacity and catalase), and decreased cortisol levels in fish of the BN-treated groups. Histological examinations of the anterior and posterior intestines and liver in groups B1.5 and B3 revealed the healthiest organs. This study recommends BN at a concentration of 1.5% as a feed additive in the Dicentrarchus labrax diet.

Bentonite in Korea: A Resource and Research Focus for Biomedical and Cosmetic Industries

This study provides an in-depth review of bentonite, focusing on its applications in Korea's biomedical and cosmetic sectors. It delves into bentonite's chemical properties, which make it a valuable resource in various industries, particularly in the health and beauty industries. We discuss bentonite's antimicrobial properties, showcasing its effectiveness against a wide range of pathogens and its potential as a biomedicine adjuvant to boost immune responses. Despite its benefits, the review also addresses the need for caution due to its possible side effects when used in human therapy. In the cosmetics industry, bentonite is prized for its ability to absorb impurities, making it a popular ingredient in products from leading brands. The review highlights the ongoing research and development efforts aiming to further explore bentonite's capabilities and applications, underlining the material's significant contribution to advancing Korea's innovation in the biomedical and cosmetic fields. This review suggests that with more research, bentonite's full potential can be unlocked, offering new opportunities for these industries.

Enhanced Retention of Cd(II) by Exfoliated Bentonite and Its Methoxy Form: Steric and Energetic Studies

Synergistic studies were conducted to evaluate the retention potentiality of exfoliating bentonite (EXBEN) as well as its methanol hybridization derivative (Mth/EXBEN) toward Cd(II) ions to be able to verify the effects of the transformation processes. The adsorption characteristics were established by considering the steric and energetic aspects of the implemented advanced equilibrium simulation, specifically the monolayer model with a single energy level. Throughout the full saturation states, the adsorption characteristics of Cd(II) increased substantially to 363.7 mg/g following the methanol hybridized treatment in comparison to EXBEN (293.2 mg/g) as well as raw bentonite (BEN) (187.3 mg/g). The steric analysis indicated a significant rise in the levels of the active sites following the exfoliation procedure [retention site density (Nm) = 162.96 mg/g] and the chemical modification with methanol [retention site density (Nm) = 157.1 mg/g]. These findings clarify the improvement in the potential of Mth/EXBEN to eliminate Cd(II). Furthermore, each open site of Mth/EXBEN has the capacity to bind approximately three ions of Cd(II) in a vertically aligned manner. The energetic investigations, encompassing the Gaussian energy (less than 8 kJ/mol) plus the adsorption energy (less than 40 kJ/mol), provide evidence of the physical sequestration of Cd(II). This process may involve the collaborative impacts of dipole binding forces (ranging from 2 to 29 kJ/mol) and hydrogen binding (less than 30 kJ/mol). The measurable thermodynamic functions, particularly entropy, internal energy, and free enthalpy, corroborate the exothermic and spontaneous nature of Cd(II) retention by Mth/EXBEN, as opposed to those by EXBEN and BE.

Synthesis and Characterization of Iron-Rich Glauconite Nanorods by a Facile Sonochemical Method for Instantaneous and Eco-friendly Elimination of Malachite Green Dye from Aquatic Environments

Novel glauconite nanorods (GNRs) were synthesized by the sonication-induced chemical expansion and scrolling process of natural glauconite. The synthetic nanostructure was characterized by different analytical techniques as a superior adsorbent for the malachite green dye (MG). The synthetic GNRs were detected as porous nanorods with an average length of 150 nm to 5 μm, an average diameter of 25 to 200 nm, and a specific surface area of 123.7 m2/g. As an adsorbent for MG, the synthetic GNRs showed superior uptake capacity up to 1265.6 mg/g at the saturation stage, which is higher than most of the recently developed highly adsorbent dyes. The adsorption behavior and mechanistic properties were depicted by using modern and traditional equilibrium modeling. The kinetic assumption of the pseudo-first-order model (R2 > 0.94) and the classic isotherm of the Langmuir equilibrium model (R2 > 0.97) were used to describe the adsorption reactions. The steric investigation demonstrates that each active site on the surface of GNRs can adsorb up to three MG molecules (n = 2.19-2.48) in vertical orientation involving multimolecular mechanisms. Also, the determined active site density (577.89 mg/g) demonstrates the enrichment of the surface of GNRs with numerous adsorption receptors with strong affinity for the MG dye. The energetic study, including Gaussian energy (6.27-7.97 kJ/mol) and adsorption energy (9.45-10.43 kJ/mol), revealed that GNRs had physically adsorbed the dye, which might involve electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, and dipole forces. The internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy determined the exothermic and spontaneous uptake of MG.

Bentonite as a water-insoluble amorphous solid dispersion matrix for enhancing oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs

Bentonite (BT), an orally administrable natural clay, is widely used for medical and pharmaceutical purposes due to its unique properties, including swelling, adsorption and ion-exchange. However, its application as a matrix of amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) formulations is rarely reported, despite the fact that drugs can adsorb to BT in an amorphous state. The objective of this study was to explore the feasibility of BT as a water-insoluble ASD matrix for enhancing the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs, including sorafenib (SF). We prepared a novel BT-based ASD of an SF-BT composite (SFBTC) by adsorbing SF onto BT under acidic conditions using the ionic interaction between cationic SF and negatively charged BT. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), powder X-ray diffractometry (pXRD), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses revealed that SF adsorbed to BT in an amorphous state at SF:BT ratios from 1:3 to 1:10. In pharmacokinetic studies in rats, SFBTC (1:3) significantly improved the oral bioavailability of SF, and the AUClast of SFBTC (1:3) was 3.3-fold higher than that of NEXAVAR®, a commercial product of SF. An in vitro release study under sink conditions revealed that SFBTC (1:3) completely released SF in a pH-dependent manner, while a nonsink condition study indicated the generation of supersaturation under intestinal pH conditions. A kinetic solubility study showed that the release of SFBTC (1:3) followed the diffusion-controlled mechanism, which is a typical characteristic of water-insoluble matrix-based ASDs. The pharmacokinetic studies of drug-BT composites of various drugs belonging to BCS class II indicated that the pKa value of the adsorbed drugs is one of the most important factors determining their dissolution and oral bioavailability. These results suggest that BT could be a promising water-insoluble ASD matrix for improving the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs, including SF.

Synthesis and Characterization of Methoxy-Exfoliated Montmorillonite Nanosheets as Potential Carriers of 5-Fluorouracil Drug with Enhanced Loading, Release, and Cytotoxicity Properties

Natural bentonite clay (BE) underwent modification steps that involved the exfoliation of its layers into separated nanosheets (EXBE) and further functionalization of these sheets with methanol, forming methoxy-exfoliated bentonite (Mth/EXBE). The synthetically modified products were investigated as enhanced carriers of 5-fluorouracil as compared to raw bentonite. The modification process strongly induced loading properties that increased to 214.4 mg/g (EXBE) and 282.6 mg/g (Mth/EXBE) instead of 124.9 mg/g for bentonite. The loading behaviors were illustrated based on the kinetic (pseudo-first-order model), classic isotherm (Langmuir model), and advanced isotherm modeling (monolayer model of one energy). The Mth/EBE carrier displays significantly higher loading site density (95.9 mg/g) as compared to EXBE (66.2 mg/g) and BE (44.9 mg/g). The loading numbers of 5-Fu in each site of BE, EXBE, and Mth/EXBE (>1) reflect the vertical orientation of these loaded ions involving multi-molecular processes. The loading processes that occurred appeared to be controlled by complex physical and weak chemical mechanisms, considering both Gaussian energy (<8 KJ/mol) as well as loading energy (<40 KJ/mol). The releasing patterns of EXBE and Mth/EXBE exhibit prolonged and continuous properties up to 100 h, with Mth/EXBE displaying much faster behaviors. Based on the release kinetic modeling, the release reactions exhibit non-Fickian transport release properties, validating cooperative diffusion and erosion release mechanisms. The cytotoxicity of 5-Fu is also significantly enhanced by these carriers: 5-Fu/BE (8.6% cell viability), 5-Fu/EXBE (2.21% cell viability), and 5-Fu/Mth/EXBE (0.73% cell viability).

Synthesis and Characterization of β-Cyclodextrin-Hybridized Exfoliated Kaolinite Single Nanosheets as Potential Carriers of Oxaliplatin with Enhanced Loading, Release, and Cytotoxic Properties

Natural kaolinite was subjected to a successful exfoliation process into separated kaolinite nanosheets (KNs), followed by hybridization with β-cyclodextrin biopolymer (β-CD), forming an advanced bio-nanocomposite (β-CD/KNs). The synthetic products were evaluated as enhanced delivery structures for oxaliplatin chemotherapy (OXAPN). The hybridization of KNs with β-CD polymer notably enhanced the loading capacity to 355.3 mg/g (β-CD/KNs) as compared to 304.9 mg/g for KNs. The loading of OXAPN into both KNs and β-CD/KNs displayed traditional pseudo-first-order kinetics (R² > 0.85) and a conventional Langmuir isotherm (R² = 0.99). The synthetic β-CD/KNs validates a greater occupied effective site density (98.7 mg/g) than KNs (66.3 mg/g). Furthermore, the values of the n steric parameter (4.7 (KNs) and 3.6 (β-CD/KNs)) reveal the vertical orientation of the loaded molecules and the loading of them by multi-molecular mechanisms. These mechanisms are mainly physical processes based on the obtained Gaussian energy (<8 KJ/mol) and loading energy (<40 KJ/mol). The release profiles of both KNs and β-CD/KNs extend for about 120 h, with remarkably faster rates for β-CD/KNs. According to the release kinetic findings, the release of OXAPN displays non-Fickian transport behavior involving the cooperation of diffusion and erosion mechanisms. The KNs and β-CD/KNs as free particles showed considerable cytotoxicity and anticancer properties against HCT-116 cancer cell lines (71.4% cell viability (KNs) and 58.83% cell viability (β-CD/KNs)). Additionally, both KNs and β-CD/KNs significantly enhanced the OXAPN's cytotoxicity (2.04% cell viability (OXAPN/KNs) and 0.86% cell viability (OXAPN/β-CD/KNs).

Insight into the Morphological Properties of Nano-Kaolinite (Nanoscrolls and Nanosheets) on Its Qualification as Delivery Structure of Oxaliplatin: Loading, Release, and Kinetic Studies

Natural kaolinite underwent advanced morphological-modification processes that involved exfoliation of its layers into separated single nanosheets (KNs) and scrolled nanoparticles as nanotubes (KNTs). Synthetic nanostructures have been characterized as advanced and effective oxaliplatin-medication (OXAP) delivery systems. The morphological-transformation processes resulted in a remarkable enhancement in the loading capacity to 304.9 mg/g (KNs) and 473 mg/g (KNTs) instead of 29.6 mg/g for raw kaolinite. The loading reactions that occurred by KNs and KNTs displayed classic pseudo-first-order kinetics (R² > 0.90) and conventional Langmuir isotherms (R² = 0.99). KNTs exhibit a higher active site density (80.8 mg/g) in comparison to KNs (66.3 mg/g) and raw kaolinite (6.5 mg/g). Furthermore, compared to KNs and raw kaolinite, each site on the surface of KNTs may hold up to six molecules of OXAP (n = 5.8), in comparison with five molecules for KNs. This was accomplished by multi-molecular processes, including physical mechanisms considering both the Gaussian energy (<8 KJ/mol) and the loading energy (<40 KJ/mol). The release activity of OXAP from KNs and KNTs exhibits continuous and regulated profiles up to 100 h, either by KNs or KNTs, with substantially faster characteristics for KNTs. Based on the release kinetic investigations, the release processes have non-Fickian transport-release features, indicating cooperative-diffusion and erosion-release mechanisms. The synthesized structures have a significant cytotoxicity impact on HCT-116 cancer cell lines (KNs (71.4% cell viability and 143.6 g/mL IC-50); KNTs (11.3% cell viability and 114.3 g/mL IC-50). Additionally, these carriers dramatically increase OXAP's cytotoxicity (2.04% cell viability, 15.4 g/mL IC-50 (OXAP/KNs); 0.6% cell viability, 4.5 g/mL IC-50 (OXAP/KNTs)).

Synthesis and Biological Activity Evaluations of Green ZnO-Decorated Acid-Activated Bentonite-Mediated Curcumin Extract (ZnO@CU/BE) as Antioxidant and Antidiabetic Agents

Green ZnO-decorated acid-activated bentonite-mediated curcumin extract (ZnO@CU/BE) was prepared as a multifunctional antioxidant and antidiabetic agent based on the extract of curcumin, which was used as a reducing and capping reagent. ZnO@CU/BE showed notably enhanced antioxidant properties against nitric oxide (88.6 ± 1.58%), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazil (90.2 ± 1.76%), 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (87.3 ± 1.61%), and superoxide (39.5 ± 1.12%) radicals. These percentages are higher than the reported values of ascorbic acid as a standard and the integrated components of the structure (CU, BE/CU, and ZnO). This signifies the impact of the bentonite substrate on enhancing the solubility, stability, dispersion, and release rate of the intercalated curcumin-based phytochemicals, in addition to enhancing the exposure interface of ZnO nanoparticles. Therefore, effective antidiabetic properties were observed, with significant inhibition effects on porcine pancreatic α-amylase (76.8 ± 1.87%), murine pancreatic α-amylase (56.5 ± 1.67%), pancreatic α-glucosidase (96.5 ± 1.07%), murine intestinal α-glucosidase (92.5 ± 1.10%), and amyloglucosidase (93.7 ± 1.55%) enzymes. These values are higher than those determined using commercial miglitol and are close to the values measured using acarbose. Hence, the structure can be applied as an antioxidant and antidiabetic agent.

Synthesis and Characterization of Green Zinc-Metal-Pillared Bentonite Mediated Curcumin Extract (Zn@CN/BE) as an Enhanced Antioxidant and Anti-Diabetes Agent

Green zinc-metal-pillared bentonite mediated curcumin extract (Zn@CN/BE) was synthesized and characterized as a low-cost and multifunctional (curcumin-based phytochemicals, zinc-capped curcumin, zinc/curcumin complexes, and zinc-pillared bentonite) antioxidant and antidiabetic agent with enhanced activity. The activities of the Zn@CN/BE structure were assessed in comparison with curcumin and ZnO as individual components and in the presence of miglitol and acarbose commercial drugs as controls. The structure validated remarkable antioxidant activities against the common oxidizing radicals (nitric oxide (94.7 ± 1.83%), DPPH (96.4 ± 1.63%), ABTS (92.8 ± 1.33%), and superoxide (62.3 ± 1.63 %)) and inhibition activities against the main oxidizing enzymes (porcine α-amylase (89.3 ± 1.13%), murine α-amylase (70.8 ± 1.54%), pancreatic α-Glucosidase (99.3 ± 1.23%), intestinal α-Glucosidase (97.7 ± 1.24%), and amyloglucosidase (98.4 ± 1.64%)). The reported activities are higher than the activities of individual components and the studied ascorbic acid as well as the commercial drugs. This enhancement effect was assigned to the impact of the zinc pillaring process within the curcumin/bentonite host, which induced the stability, dispersions, and interactive interface of the essential active compounds in addition to the solubility and release rate of the intercalated curcumin extract. This paper recommends the application of the Zn@CN/BE structure as an enhanced, low-cost, biocompatible, safe, and simply produced antioxidant and antidiabetic agent.

Synthesis and Characterization of Green ZnO@polynaniline/Bentonite Tripartite Structure (G.Zn@PN/BE) as Adsorbent for As (V) Ions: Integration, Steric, and Energetic Properties

A green ZnO@polynaniline/bentonite composite (G.Zn@PN/BE) was synthesized as an enhanced adsorbent for As (V) ions. Its adsorption properties were assessed in comparison with the integrated components of bentonite (BE) and polyaniline/bentonite (PN/BE) composites. The G.Zn@PN/BE composite achieved an As (V) retention capacity (213 mg/g) higher than BE (72.7 mg/g) and PN/BE (119.8 mg/g). The enhanced capacity of G.Zn@PN/BE was studied using classic (Langmuir) and advanced equilibrium (monolayer model of one energy) models. Considering the steric properties, the structure of G.Zn@PN/BE demonstrated a higher density of active sites (Nm = 109.8 (20 °C), 108.9 (30 °C), and 67.8 mg/g (40 °C)) than BE and PN/BE. This declared the effect of the integration process in inducing the retention capacity by increasing the quantities of the active sites. The number of adsorbed As (V) ions per site (1.76 up to 2.13) signifies the retention of two or three ions per site by a multi-ionic mechanism. The adsorption energies (from -3.07 to -3.26 kJ/mol) suggested physical retention mechanisms (hydrogen bonding and dipole bonding forces). The adsorption energy, internal energy, and free enthalpy reflected the exothermic, feasible, and spontaneous nature of the retention process. The structure is of significant As (V) uptake capacity in the existence of competitive anions or metal ions.

Recent trends in praziquantel nanoformulations for helminthiasis treatment

INTRODUCTION

Infections caused by parasitic flatworms impose a considerable worldwide health burden. Recently, World Health Organization launched its roadmap for neglected diseases for the period 2021 to 2030 and oral treatment with praziquantel (PZQ) in tablet form is the main drug therapy for combating these diseases, but its use is limited by many drawbacks, including the high therapeutic dose due to the drug's low solubility and bioavailability. Among the strategies to improve PZQ performance, the use of drug nanocarriers has been cited as an interesting approach to overcome these pharmacological issues.

AREAS COVERED

This review focuses on the various types of nanomaterials (polymeric, lipidic, inorganic nanoparticles, and nanocrystals) which have been recently used to improve PZQ therapy. In addition, recent advances in PZQ nanoformulations, developed to overcome the barriers of the conventional drug are described.

EXPERT OPINION

Considering the poor rate of discovery in the anthelmintic segment observed in recent decades, the effective management of existing drugs has become essential. The application of new strategies based on nanotechnology can extend the useful life of PZQ in new and more effective formulations. Pharmaceutical nanotechnology can solve the pharmacokinetic challenges characteristic of PZQ and improve its solubility and bioavailability.

Phyllosilicate derived catalysts for efficient conversion of lignocellulosic derived biomass to biodiesel: A review

The efforts have been made to review phyllosilicate derived (clay-based) heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production via lignocellulose derived feedstocks. These catalysts have many practical and potential applications in green catalysis. Phyllosilicate derived heterogeneous catalysts (modified via any of these approaches like acid activated clays, ion exchanged clays and layered double hydroxides) exhibits excellent catalytic activity for producing cost effective and high yield biodiesel. The combination of different protocols (intercalated catalysts, ion exchanged catalysts, acidic activated clay catalysts, clay-supported catalysts, composites and hybrids, pillared interlayer clay catalysts, and hierarchically structured catalysts) was implemented so as to achieve the synergetic effects (acidic-basic) in resultant material (catalyst) for efficient conversion of lignocellulose derived feedstock (non-edible oils) to biodiesel. Utilisation of these Phyllosilicate derived catalysts will pave path for future researchers to investigate the cost-effective, accessible and improved approaches in synthesising novel catalysts that could be used for converting lignocellulosic biomass to eco-friendly biodiesel.

Sulfonation of Natural Carbonaceous Bentonite as a Low-Cost Acidic Catalyst for Effective Transesterification of Used Sunflower Oil into Diesel; Statistical Modeling and Kinetic Properties

Bentonite sample enriched in organic matters (oil shale) was functionalized with -SO3H sulfonated carbonaceous bentonite (S-CB) by sulfonation process as a low-cost and effective acidic catalyst for the transesterification spent sunflower oil (SFO). The sulfonation effect was followed by several analytic techniques including X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared, and scanning electron microscopy analysis. The catalytic performance of the sulfonated product was evaluated based on a statistical design which was built according to the response surface methodology and the central composite rotatable design. Using the S-CB acidic catalyst in the transesterification of spent SFO resulted in an actual biodiesel yield of 96% at studied conditions of 85 min at reaction interval, 50 °C as temperature,15:1 as methanol/oil ratio, and 3.5 wt % as S-CB loading. Moreover, the optimization function suggested enhancement to obtained yield up to 97.9% by selecting the values of temperature at 62 °C, the time at 98.5 min, the methanol/SFO ratio at 14.4:1, and S-CB loading at 3.4 wt %. The technical evaluation of the SFO biodiesel reflected the suitability of the product to be used as biofuels according to international standards. The kinetic behavior of the SFO transesterification reaction over S-CB is of pseudo-first order properties and of low activation energy. Finally, the synthetic S-CB as a solid acidic catalyst is of significant reusability and was reused five times with remarkable biodiesel yields.

Wettability and contact angle affect precorneal retention and pharmacodynamic behavior of microspheres

In the present study, we describe the development of betaxolol hydrochloride and montmorillonite with ion exchange in a single formulation to create a novel micro-interactive dual-functioning sustained-release delivery system (MIDFDS) for the treatment of glaucoma. Betaxolol hydrochloride molecule was loaded onto the montmorillonite by ion exchange and MIDFDS formation was confirmed by XPS data. MIDFDS showed similar physicochemical properties to those of Betoptic, such as particle size, pH, osmotic pressure, and rheological properties. Nevertheless, the microdialysis and intraocular pressure test revealed better in vivo performance of MIDFDS, such as pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. With regards to wettability, MIDFDS had a larger contact angle (54.66 ± 5.35°) than Betoptic (36.68 ± 1.77°), enabling the MIDFDS (2.93 s) to spread slower on the cornea than Betoptic (2.50 s). Moderate spreading behavior and oppositely charged electrostatic micro-interactions had a comprehensive influence on micro-interactions with the tear film residue, resulting in a longer precorneal retention time. Furthermore, MIDFDS had a significant sustained-release effect, with complete release near the cornea. The dual-functioning sustained-release carrier together with prolonged pre-corneal retention time (80 min) provided sufficiently high drug concentrations in the aqueous humor to achieve a more stable and long-term IOP reduction for 10 h. In addition, cytotoxicity and hemolysis tests showed that MIDFDS had better biocompatibility than Betoptic. The dual-functioning microspheres presented in this study provide the possibility for improved compliance due to low cytotoxicity and hemolysis, which suggests promising clinical implications.

The Antimicrobial Properties of Modified Pharmaceutical Bentonite with Zinc and Copper

Pharmaceutical grade bentonite, containing a high amount of montmorillonite, enriched with zinc (Zn) or copper (Cu) (ZnBent and CuBent, respectively) was used as the main component for the creation of formulations for cutaneous use and tested for their antimicrobial capacity. Bentonite (Bent) with added phenoxyethanol (PH) as a preservative and unmodified bentonite were used as control groups. The mineralogical composition, structural state, and physical or chemical properties, before and after the modification of the samples, were characterized utilizing X-ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD), Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) techniques, and Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM, SEM-EDS) analyses. In addition, the profile of zinc and copper concentration from two types of surfaces ZnBent and CuBent, and into Phosphate-Buffered Saline (PBS) are discussed. Finally, the formulations in the form of basic pastes were challenged against bacteria, molds, and yeasts, and their performance was evaluated based on the European Pharmacopeia criteria. The Cu-modified bentonite performed excellently against bacteria and yeasts, while the Zn-modified bentonite only showed great results against yeasts. Therefore, Cu-modified bentonite formulations could offer antimicrobial protection without the use of preservatives.

Effective decontamination of Ca2+ and Mg2+ hardness from groundwater using innovative muscovite based sodalite in batch and fixed-bed column studies; dynamic and equilibrium studies

A novel form of sodalite was synthesized from muscovite (M.SD) as low-cost softening material for both Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions from real groundwater in batch and column studies. The sodalite sample showed significant surface area (105 m²/g) and ion exchange capacity (87.3 meq/100 g) which qualifies it strong for softening applications. The incorporation of the M.SD as a fixed bed in column system at a fixed thickness of 4 cm and flow rates of 5 mL/min resulted in removal percentages of 90.5% and 92.2% for Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺, respectively at pH 7.6. Considering the real concentrations of the ions (Ca²⁺ (233 mg/L) and Mg²⁺ (114 mg/L)), the M.SD bed has the ability to reduce their concentrations according to the recommended limits (75 mg/L for Ca²⁺ and 50 mg/L for Mg²⁺). These conditions resulted in purification of about 8.1 L and 8.7 L with breakthrough intervals of 1380 min and 1440 min; and saturation interval more than 1620 min for Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺, respectively. The M.SD columns' performances were described considering the assumption of the Thomas model, Adams-Bohart model, and Yoon-Nelson model. The batch studies demonstrate the uptake of both Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions according to the Pseudo-First order kinetics and Langmuir equilibrium behaviour. Considering the values of Gaussian energies (0.77 KJ/mol (Ca²⁺) and 1.36 KJ/mol (Mg²⁺)), the uptake of these ions occurred by homogenous reactions of monolayer form and physical nature. The thermodynamic studies declared the spontaneous properties of the reactions and their exothermic properties.

Effective Approach of Activated Jordanian Bentonite by Sodium Ions for Total Phenolic Compounds Removal from Olive Mill Wastewater

Olive mill wastewater (OMW) is nowadays considered a serious environmental problem, especially within the Mediterranean region. With this in mind, water shortages are also a very serious and prevalent concern in third world countries. The aim of this study is to investigate the feasibility of using Jordanian bentonite, a simple and natural clay, as a possible adsorbent to decrease the negative characteristics of raw OMW, as an approach to the development of a methodology that addresses the OMW problem without affecting freshwater resources. The purified bentonite was activated by sodium ions at room temperature. FTIR, XRD, TGA, and BET surface area measurements were performed. OMW was contacted with both purified and activated bentonite in the batch technique to figure out the optimum parameters for the adsorption process. Physiochemical parameters of OMW were measured before and after treatment. The maximum adsorption qm was found as 8.81 mg/g at 323 K for the total phenolic compounds. The Langmuir and Freundlich models were utilized to describe the equilibrium isotherms and both models fit well. The parameters of thermodynamic show that the adsorption process was feasible, spontaneous, and endothermic in nature. These promising results along with the sodium activation of bentonite significantly improve bentonite’s adsorption capacity.

Insight into chitosan/zeolite-A nanocomposite as an advanced carrier for levofloxacin and its anti-inflammatory properties; loading, release, and anti-inflammatory studies

Chitosan/zeolite-A nanocomposite (CH/ZA) was synthesized as a potential carrier for levofloxacin (LVOX) of enhanced technical properties. The CH/ZA composite displayed enhanced loading capacity (425 mg/g) as compared to chitosan (188.8 mg/g) and zeolite-A (234.6 mg/g). The loading behavior follows Pseudo-Second-order and Langmuir as kinetic and isotherm models. The equilibrium studies, Gaussian energy (8.15 KJ/mol), and thermodynamic parameters demonstrate homogenous and monolayer loading by complex chemical and physical reactions that are of spontaneous and exothermic nature. The CH/ZA composite is of slow and continuous release profile (200h) with 94.3% as the maximum release percentage. The release reactions are of non-Fickian behavior involving both diffusion and erosion mechanisms. The loading of LVOX into CH/ZA induced its anti-inflammatory effect against the cytokine production (IL-6 and IL-8) within the human bronchial epithelia cells (NL20). The cytotoxicity studies on the normal cells demonstrated a high safety value for the composite.

Insights into the green doping of clinoptilolite with Na+ ions (Na+/Clino) as a nanocatalyst in the conversion of palm oil into biodiesel; optimization and mechanism

The critical demand for eco-friendly, renewable, and safe energy resources is an essential issue encountered in the contemporary world. The catalytic transesterification of plant oils into biodiesel was assessed as promising a technique for providing new forms of clean and safe fuel. Natural clinoptilolite was doped with Na+ ions by green chemical reactions between sodium nitrite and green tea extract, producing a novel modified structure (Na+/Clino). The Na+/Clino product had an enhanced total basicity (6.41 mmol OH/g), ion exchange capacity (387 meq/100 g), and surface area (312.7 m2 g-1), which qualified it to be used as a potential basic catalyst for the transesterification of palm oil. Transesterification tests were statistically assessed using a response surface methodology and a central composite design. Considering the effect of how the significant factors interact with each other, the synthetic Na+/Clino achieved a 96.4% experimental biodiesel yield after 70 min at 100 °C in the presence of 2.75 wt% catalyst loading and a 12.5:1 methanol-to-palm-oil ratio. Based on the optimization function of the statistical model, the performance of Na+/Clino can theoretically be enhanced to increase the yield to 98.2% by expanding the test time to 85 min and the loading value to 3 wt%. The product yielded by the Na+/ClinO process is of adequate technical properties, considering the international levels for standard biodiesel (EN 14214 and ASTM D-6751). Finally, the prepared green Na+ doped clinoptilolite had excellent recyclability as a heterogeneous basic catalyst and displayed higher efficiency than several species of previously studied heterogeneous and homogenous catalysts.

Sonocogreen Decoration of Clinoptilolite by CaO Nanorods as Ecofriendly Catalysts in the Transesterification of Castor Oil into Biodiesel; Response Surface Studies

A CaO/clinoptilolite green nanocomposite (CaO/Clino) was synthesized by a green modification technique using calcium nitrate and green tea extract. The CaO/Clino nanocomposite promises a total basicity of 4.82 mmol OH/g, surface area of 252.4 m²/g, and ion exchange capacity of 134.3 mequiv/100 g, which qualifies the product as an effective catalyst in the transesterification of castor oil. The transesterification performance of the CaO/Clino catalyst was addressed statistically based on the response surface methodology and central composite rotatable design, considering the essential experimental parameters. Based on the interaction effect between the studied variables, the CaO/Clino catalyst can achieve an experimental biodiesel yield of 93.8% after 2.5 h at 120 °C with 3.5 wt % catalyst loading and 15:1 ethanol/castor oil molar ratio. The optimization function of the design suggested enhancement in the performance of the CaO/Clino catalyst to achieve a yield of 95.4% if the test time interval increased to 2.65 h and the ethanol content increased to 16:1 as a molar ratio to castor oil. The produced biodiesel over CaO/ClinO has acceptable technical qualifications according to the international requirements (EN 14214 and ASTM D-6751). The synthetic green CaO/Clino nanocomposite has better recyclability as a heterogeneous catalyst and higher activity than some investigated catalysts in literature.

Insight into carbohydrate polymers (chitosan and 2- hydroxyethyl methacrylate/methyl methacrylate) intercalated bentonite-based nanocomposites as multifunctional and environmental adsorbents for methyl parathion pesticide

Two-hybrid products of bentonite intercalated carbohydrate polymers (chitosan (BE.P.CH) and 2- hydroxyethyl methacrylate/methyl methacrylate copolymer (BE/P.HEMA/MMA)) were synthesized as enhanced adsorbents for methyl parathion pesticide (MPP). The intercalation processes induced the affinity and the capacity of bentonite achieving the best value at pH 8. The maximum MPP adsorption capacities of BE (287.3 mg/g), BE/P.CH (634.5 mg/g), and BE/P.HEMA-MMA (868.5 mg/g) obtained after 300 min, 240 min, and 360 min, respectively. The kinetic properties of BE follow the Pseudo-second order behavior (R² = 0.93) while BE/P.CH and BE/P.HEMA-MMA are of Pseudo-First order behavior (R² > 0.92). Based on the equilibrium studies, the three products are of Freundlich isotherm behavior (R² > 0.9) and the uptake is of multilayer forms on heterogeneous surfaces. The Gaussian energies (>8 KJ/mol), Gibbs free energies (>20 to <40 KJ/mol), and enthalpies (>40 to <80 KJ/mol) give an indication about adsorption mechanism involved chemical and physical reactions. The thermodynamics of MPP uptake reactions by the three products are of endothermic and spontaneous behaviors. The MPP uptake in the presence of NH⁺⁴, PO₄^-3, Mn⁺², and Pb⁺² competitive ions reflects enhancement in the affinity of BE after the integration between it and the selected polymers.

Characterization of surface properties of chitosan/bentonite composites beads by inverse gas chromatography

Chitosan/bentonite (CSBt) composites beads were prepared by dropwise of a solution containing chitosan and bentonite to an alkaline NaOH solution. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, XPS and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller BET analysis have been used to provide new insights on the composition and morphology of CSBt composites beads surface. In this study, inverse gas chromatography (IGC) was implemented to characterize physico-chemical properties of CSBt composites surface. IGC at infinite dilution (IGC-ID) was used to understand the effect of CS on dispersive component of the surface energy of the bentonite. The increasing amount of CS leads to significantly decrease of Bt γ_s^d emphasizing the Bt coating with CS. The IGC at finite concentration (IGC-FC) was also implemented allowing us to reach several parameters such as: specific surface area with organic probes and the distribution functions of the adsorption energy sites on the solid surface. In this case, the most significant decreases were observed in the specific surface area obtained with the octane and isopropanol probes. The distribution function of the adsorption energy sites obtained with isopropanol revealed the decrease in the number of the high energy sites with increase of CS/Bt mass ratio.

Promoting the decontamination of different types of water pollutants (Cd2+, safranin dye, and phosphate) using a novel structure of exfoliated bentonite admixed with cellulose nanofiber

Exfoliated bentonite sheets admixed with nano-cellulose fibers (EXB/CF) were prepared as advanced bio-composite of enhanced decontamination properties for different species of water pollutants (Cd²⁺, safranin dye, and phosphate). The composite achieved promising adsorption capacities with experimental values of 206.8 mg/g (Cd²⁺), 336 mg/g (safranin), and 296 mg/g (phosphate); and predicted maximum capacities of 212.9 mg/g (Cd²⁺), 341 mg/g (safranin), and 305 mg/g (phosphate). The adsorption systems for the three species follow the Freundlich isotherm model and Pseudo-First order as kinetic model considering both the linear and nonlinear fitting demonstrating heterogeneous and multilayer uptake properties of physisorption type. The operation of physisorption mechanisms was supported by the obtained adsorption energies from D-R model that are less than 8 kJ/mol as well as the calculated free energies and enthalpies. The thermodynamic investigation revealed the nature of the adsorption reactions of the three pollutants by EXB/CF as exothermic, favorable, and spontaneous reactions. The EXB/CF composite also is of significant recyclability value and applied in five decontamination reusing runs for Cd²⁺, safranin dye, and phosphate achieving promising removal percentages.

Insight into the Loading and Release Properties of an Exfoliated Kaolinite/Cellulose Fiber (EXK/CF) Composite as a Carrier for Oxaliplatin Drug: Cytotoxicity and Release Kinetics

Kaolinite layers were exfoliated as single sheets and admixed with cellulose fibers, forming an advanced exfoliated kaolinite/cellulose fiber (EXK/CF) composite, which was characterized as a promising carrier for the oxaliplatin (OL) drug to induce safety as well as the therapeutic effect. The EXK/CF composite exhibited promising loading capacity and achieved an experimental value of 670 mg/g and an expected theoretical value of 704.4 mg/g. The loading behavior of OL using the EXK/CF composite followed the pseudo-first-order kinetic model and the Langmuir equilibrium model, achieving an adsorption energy of 7.7 kJ/mol. This suggested physisorption and homogeneous loading behavior of the OL molecules in a monolayer form. The release profile of OL from EXK/CF continued for about 100 h with maximum release percentages of 86.4 and 95.2% in the phosphate and acetate buffers, respectively. The determined diffusion exponent from the Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetic model suggested non-Fickian transport behavior of the OL molecules and releasing behavior controlled by erosion as well as diffusion mechanisms. Regarding the cytotoxic effect, the EXK/CF composite has a high safety impact on the normal colorectal cells (CCD-18Co) and higher toxic impacts on the colorectal cancer cell (HCT116) than the free oxaliplatin drug.

Insight into the Loading and Release Properties of MCM-48/Biopolymer Composites as Carriers for 5-Fluorouracil: Equilibrium Modeling and Pharmacokinetic Studies

The effect of the integration between MCM-48 and some biopolymers (starch, chitosan, and β-cyclodextrin) on enhancing the pharmaceutical properties of MCM-48 as advanced carriers for the 5-fluorouracil drug was studied considering the loading capacities and the release profiles. The prepared carriers are MCM-48/chitosan (MCM/CH), MCM-48/starch composite (MCM/ST), and MCM-48/β-Cyclodextrin (MCM/CD). They emphasized excellent 5-Fu loading capacities of 141.2 mg/g (MCM-48), 156.6 mg/g (MCM/ST), 191 mg/g (MCM/CH), and 170 mg/g (MCM/CD), reflecting significant enhancement in the loading capacities. The kinetic and equilibrium investigation suggested physisorption loading of 5-Fu drug in a monolayer form for MCM-48, MCM/ST, and MCM/CH (Langmuir) and in a multilayer form for MCM/CD (Freundlich). This was supported by the estimated adsorption energies (0.23 kJ/mol (MCM-48), 0.26 kJ/mol (MCM/ST), 0.3 kJ/mol (MCM/CH), and 0.75 kJ/mol (MCM/CD)) and the thermodynamic parameters of free energy and enthalpy. The obtained release profiles for 80 h reflected significant controlling for the releasing behavior of MCM/48 on integrating its structure by adjusting the type of the selected polymer and its ratio. The pharmacokinetic modeling and the diffusion exponent from the Korsmeyer-Peppas model suggested non-Fickian transport behavior (a combination of erosion and diffusion releasing mechanism) for MCM/ST, MCM/CH, and MCM/CD and Fickian diffusion behavior (diffusion releasing mechanism) for MCM-48.

Insight into the Adsorption and Photocatalytic Behaviors of an Organo-bentonite/Co3O4 Green Nanocomposite for Malachite Green Synthetic Dye and Cr(VI) Metal Ions: Application and Mechanisms

A green composite of organically modified bentonite supported by Co3O4 nanoparticles (OB/Co) was successfully fabricated and investigated as a potential eco-friendly, low-cost adsorbent and photocatalyst for promising removal of both malachite green dye (MG.D) and Cr(VI) ions. The composite showed high adsorption properties and achieved experimental q max values of 223 and 139 mg/g for MG.D and Cr(VI) after equilibration times of 360 min and 480 min for the inspected contaminants, respectively. The kinetic and equilibrium inspection reflected the best description of their adsorption behaviors by the pseudo-first-order kinetic model and the Langmuir isotherm model, respectively. This revealed favorable and homogeneous uptake of both MG.D and Cr(VI) in a monolayer form with theoretical Langmuir q max values of 343.6 and 194.5 mg/g, respectively. The theoretical adsorption energies of MG.D (0.6 kJ/mol) and Cr(VI) (0.5 kJ/mol) from the Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) model revealed physisorption properties that might be resulted from some types of Coulombic attractive forces, achieving theoretical q max values of 226.5 and 144.6 mg/g, respectively. The suggested adsorption mechanism was confirmed by the main mathematical parameters of thermodynamic studies that revealed physical, spontaneous, and exothermic uptake processes. Also, the composite showed high photocatalytic performance under visible light, which resulted in a 100% removal percentage of 100 mg/L of MG.D and Cr(VI) after about 180 and 240 min, respectively, from the adsorption equilibrium time.

Effect of Nano-Montmorillonite on Osteoblast Differentiation, Mineral Density, and Osteoclast Differentiation in Bone Formation

Calcium-type montmorillonite, a phyllosilicate mineral, has diverse health benefits when introduced into the gastrointestinal tract or applied to the skin. However, the predominant use of this layered material has thus far been in traditional industries, despite its potential application in the pharmaceutical industry. We investigated the effects and mechanism of nano-montmorillonite (NM) on osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation in vivo and in vitro. We examined the osteogenic effects of NM with high calcium content (3.66 wt%) on alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, mineralization, bone microarchitecture, and expression level of osteoblast and osteoclast related genes in Ca-deficient ovariectomized (OVX) rats. Micro-computed tomography of OVX rats revealed that NM attenuated the low-Ca-associated changes in trabecular and cortical bone mineral density. It improved ALP activity and mineralization, as well as the expression of osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation associated genes. NM also activated the expression of runt-related transcription factor 2, osteocalcin, bone morphogenetic protein 2, and type 1 collagen via phosphorylated small mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 1/5/8 signaling. Further, NM repressed the expression of receptor activator for cathepsin K, nuclear factor kappa-B ligand and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase. Therefore, NM inhibits osteoclastogenesis, stimulates osteoblastogenesis, and alleviates osteoporosis.

Efficient photocatalytic removal of safarnin-O dye pollutants from water under sunlight using synthetic bentonite/polyaniline@Ni2O3 photocatalyst of enhanced properties

This study involves a synthesis of bentonite/polyaniline composite (BE/PANI) of enhanced physicochemical properties as catalyst support for Ni₂O₃ photocatalyst. The change in the structural properties, morphological features, and optical behavior was addressed utilizing several analytic techniques. The characterization results reflected considerable enhancement in the specific surface area after the integration between bentonite and polyaniline (127 m²/g) and after loading of the campsite by Ni₂O₃ forming bentonite/polyaniline@Ni₂O₃ composite (BE/PANI@Ni₂O₃) (231 m²/g). Additionally, the band gap energy was reduced to 2.41 eV and 1.61 eV for BE/PANI and BE/PANI@Ni₂O₃, respectively, as compared to that of 3.4 eV for pure Ni₂O₃. The photocatalytic removal of safranin-O dye under sunlight exposure using BE/PANI@Ni₂O₃ as catalyst revealed great enhancement in the removal percentages by 63%, 75%, and 72.35% higher than bentonite, polyaniline, and Ni₂O₃, respectively. Five milligrams per liter of safranin-O dye can be completely removed from 100 ml water using 0.05 g of the composite after 90 min. The catalyst also was applied effectively in the removal of safranin-O dye from raw water samples as a realistic application of the synthetic composite. Synthetic BE/PANI@Ni₂O₃ as photocatalyst showed very high stability and can be used seven times as photocatalytic at amazing removal percentages.