Transdermal delivery of fluvastatin loaded nanoemulsion gel: Preparation, characterization and in vivo anti-osteoporosis activity

Evaluating the effects of surfactant types on the properties and stability of oil-in-water Rhodiola rosea nanoemulsion

Different types and ratios of surfactant, co-surfactant, and oil phase, have a greater impact on nanoemulsion preparation. The presence of surfactants in the nanoemulsion can reduce surface tension and characteristic stability. In this study, four groups of oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsions (NEs) with different ratios of surfactant and co-surfactant, and two oils were formulated as carriers of Rhodiola rosea. The variable optimization was investigated and then indicated as optimization group A (Opt A) with the formula of 10% of transcutol, 16.63% of tween 80, Opt B with 10% of tween 80, 29.87% of span 80, Opt C with 28.42% of transcutol, 30% of labrasol, and Opt D with 30% of transcutol, 30% of tween 80. Labrafac and soybean oil were used as the oil phase. The optimized formula using the response surface method (RSM) by design expert software showed the ideal conditions with a higher desirability score. Desirability score are 0.72% (Opt A), 0.81% (Opt B), 0.76% (Opt C) and 0.98% (Opt D), the desirability rating close to 1 indicates a high possibility that the projected values would closely match the experimental results for the optimum formula. All of the optimized formulation were also checked for the characteristics of nanoemulsion including particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, viscosity, encapsulation efficiency, transmission electron microscope (TEM), antioxidant activity, skin irritation test and stability studies. Our study provides a promising combination of surfactant-co-surfactant and oil phases to produce a stable nanoemulsion that can be used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics in the future.

Therapeutic Effects of Statins: Promising Drug for Topical and Transdermal Administration

Statins are HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors and decrease plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels. They are well tolerated, and because of their LDL-C-lowering effect, they are utilized to decrease the risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. However, statins have pleiotropic effects, including immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer. Currently, oral administration is the only Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved route of administration for statins. However, other administration routes have demonstrated promising results in different pre-clinical and clinical studies. For instance, statins also seem beneficial in dermatitis, psoriasis, vitiligo, hirsutism, uremic pruritus, and graft-versus-host disease. Topically applied statins have been studied to treat seborrhea, acne, rhinophyma, and rosacea. They also have beneficial effects in contact dermatitis and wound healing in animal studies, (HIV) infection, osseointegration, porokeratosis, and some ophthalmologic diseases. Topical and transdermal application of statins is a non-invasive drug administration method that has shown significant results in bypassing the first-pass metabolism in the liver, thereby reducing possible adverse effects. This study reviews the multifaceted molecular and cellular impacts of statins, their topical and transdermal application, novel delivery systems, such as nanosystems for topical and transdermal administration and the challenges concerning this approach.

Development of Soft Luliconazole Invasomes Gel for Effective Transdermal Delivery: Optimization to In-Vivo Antifungal Activity

Luliconazole (LZ) is a good candidate for the treatment of fungal infection topically but has limitations, i.e., poor solubility and poor permeability to skin. Due to these limitations, multiple administrations for a long time are required to treat the inflection. The aim of the present study was to develop the invasomes (IVS) gel of LZ to improve the topical antifungal activity. The IVS was prepared by the thin-film hydration method and optimized by Box-Bhekhen design software. The optimized LZIVS (LZIVSopt) has 139.1 ± 4.32 nm of vesicle size, 88.21 ± 0.82% of entrapment efficiency, 0.301 ± 0.012 of PDI, and 19.5 mV (negative) of zeta potential. Scanning microscopy showed a spherical shape of the vesicle. FTIR spectra showed there is no interaction between the drug and lipid. Thermogram showed that the LZ is encapsulated into the LZIVS matrix. LZIVSopt gel (LZIVSopt-G3) exhibited optimum viscosity (6493 ± 27 cps) and significant spreadability (7.2 g·cm/s). LZIVSopt-G3 showed 2.47-fold higher permeation than pure LZ-gel. LZIVSopt-G3 did not show any edema or swelling in the skin, revealing that the developed formulation is non-irritant. LZIVSopt-G3 exhibited significant inhibition of the fungus infection (C. albicans) in the infected rats. The finding concluded that IVS gel is a good carrier and an attractive approach for the enhancement of topical delivery of LZ to treat the fungal infection.

Recent Update on Nanoemulsion Impregnated Hydrogel: a Gleam into the Revolutionary Strategy for Diffusion-Controlled Delivery of Therapeutics

Since earlier times, dermatological remedies have been utilized to treat diseases associated with pain, irritation, and skin conditions. Compared to other routes of drug delivery, topical delivery of drugs offers several benefits. Scientists are investigating different alterations in dosage forms in addition to existing topical formulations such as ointments, gels, creams, lotions, and ointments to significantly improve the permeation of drugs and enhance the pharmacological efficacy of medications that are poorly absorbed via the skin. Conventional formulations have a plethora of problems viz. poor absorption, no target specificity, low spreadability, and inadequate bioavailability which leads the researchers toward developing novel formulations like nanoemulsions. The nanoemulsion can enhance the gradient in concentration and thermodynamic movement toward the epidermis and enhance the penetration of its constituents. However, due to its difficult application, nanoemulsion's lower viscosity limited its use in transdermal delivery. Thus, the development of nanoemulsion-based hydrogels has shown to be a successful strategy for removing obstacles from existing drug formulations. The simple application, expedient spreadability, non-stickiness, safety, and effectiveness of nanoemulsion-based hydrogel have led to substantial growth in their research in recent years. This review gives a brief idea about the prevalence of skin diseases, skin as an obstacle for drug delivery, and recent research insights to combat these obstacles. The work highlights the mechanism of drug release via nanoemulsion, hydrogels, and nanoemulsion-based hydrogels with reference to recent research on hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs.

Current Advances in Lipid Nanosystems Intended for Topical and Transdermal Drug Delivery Applications

Skin delivery is an exciting and challenging field. It is a promising approach for effective drug delivery due to its ease of administration, ease of handling, high flexibility, controlled release, prolonged therapeutic effect, adaptability, and many other advantages. The main associated challenge, however, is low skin permeability. The skin is a healthy barrier that serves as the body's primary defence mechanism against foreign particles. New advances in skin delivery (both topical and transdermal) depend on overcoming the challenges associated with drug molecule permeation and skin irritation. These limitations can be overcome by employing new approaches such as lipid nanosystems. Due to their advantages (such as easy scaling, low cost, and remarkable stability) these systems have attracted interest from the scientific community. However, for a successful formulation, several factors including particle size, surface charge, components, etc. have to be understood and controlled. This review provided a brief overview of the structure of the skin as well as the different pathways of nanoparticle penetration. In addition, the main factors influencing the penetration of nanoparticles have been highlighted. Applications of lipid nanosystems for dermal and transdermal delivery, as well as regulatory aspects, were critically discussed.

Nanotechnology for Targeted Drug Delivery to Treat Osteoporosis

Bone diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, Paget's disease, and osteoporosis cause mortality and mobility limits. Nanomedicine and nano delivery systems have been utilised to deliver active drug moiety to the precisely targeted site in a controlled manner, and it serves as a means of diagnostic tools. The utilisation of nanomedicine is expanding vigorously for assured targeting and efficient drug delivery. Nanotechnology offers various advantages, such as site-specific targeting, precise drug release kinetics, and improved bone mineral density. Recent medications available for osteoporosis are not viable due to the adverse effects associated with them and low patient compliance. There is an urgent need to develop biocompatible and appropriate drug delivery nanocarriers such as nanoparticles, liposomes, hydrogels, dendrimers, micelles, mesoporous particles, etc. These carriers enhance drug delivery and therapeutic effectiveness in bone tissues. The use of nanotechnology is also associated with toxicity. This article presents the review of various reports on nanocarrier systems and biologics for the treatment of osteoporosis. It aims to provide researchers with a clue for inventing a new drug delivery system with site-specific targeting for the treatment of osteoporosis.

Current Status of the Diagnosis and Management of Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis has been defined as the silent disease of the 21st century, becoming a public health risk due to its severity, chronicity and progression and affecting mainly postmenopausal women and older adults. Osteoporosis is characterized by an imbalance between bone resorption and bone production. It is diagnosed through different methods such as bone densitometry and dual X-rays. The treatment of this pathology focuses on different aspects. On the one hand, pharmacological treatments are characterized by the use of anti-resorptive drugs, as well as emerging regenerative medicine treatments such as cell therapies and the use of bioactive hydrogels. On the other hand, non-pharmacological treatments are associated with lifestyle habits that should be incorporated, such as physical activity, diet and the cessation of harmful habits such as a high consumption of alcohol or smoking. This review seeks to provide an overview of the theoretical basis in relation to bone biology, the existing methods for diagnosis and the treatments of osteoporosis, including the development of new strategies.

Fabrication and Evaluation of Voriconazole Loaded Transethosomal Gel for Enhanced Antifungal and Antileishmanial Activity

Voriconazole (VRC) is a broad-spectrum antifungal agent belonging to BCS class II (biopharmaceutical classification system). Despite many efforts to enhance its solubility, this primary issue still remains challenging for formulation scientists. Transethosomes (TELs) are one of the potential innovative nano-carriers for improving the solubility and permeation of poorly soluble and permeable drugs. We herein report voriconazole-loaded transethosomes (VRCT) fabricated by the cold method and followed by their incorporation into carbopol 940 as a gel. The prepared VRCT were evaluated for % yield, % entrapment efficiency (EE), surface morphology, possible chemical interaction, particle size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index (PDI). The optimized formulation had a particle size of 228.2 nm, a zeta potential of −26.5 mV, and a PDI of 0.45 with enhanced % EE. Rheology, spreadability, extrudability, in vitro release, skin permeation, molecular docking, antifungal, and antileishmanial activity were also assessed for VRCT and VRC loaded transethosomal gel (VTEG). Ex-vivo permeation using rat skin depicted a transdermal flux of 22.8 µg/cm²/h with enhanced efficiency up to 4-fold. A two-fold reduction in inhibitory as well as fungicidal concentration was observed against various fungal strains by VRCT and VTEG besides similar results against L-donovani. The development of transethosomal formulation can serve as an efficient drug delivery system through a topical route with enhanced efficacy and better patient compliance.

Lipid liquid-crystalline nanoparticles sustained teicoplanin delivery for treatment of chronic osteomyelitis: In vitro and in vivo studies

AIM

The aim of our work is to formulate teicoplanin-loaded lipid liquid-crystalline (cubosomes) nanoparticles laden gel to sustain the release of teicoplanin for effective treatment of infected bone.

METHODS

Cubosomal gels were prepared by emulsification technique. The batches were characterized for morphology, size, entrapment efficacy, viscosity, in-vitro flux, in-vivo drug release and histopathological studies.

RESULTS

Transmission electron microscopy images confirmed the bi-continuous liquid crystalline phase. The size (61-202nm), viscosity (12,138-13,132cp), and entrapment efficacy (69.0-81.8% w/w) increase with the level of glycerol monooleate. The in-vitro flux data showed sustain teicoplanin release from the cubosomal gels for 36 days, compared to 48h from the control gel. The in-vivo teicoplanin release study (osteomyelitis induced by S. aureus) showed low serum drug-concentration from the gel (up to 14 days) compared to high-serum drug-concentration using intravenous injections.

CONCUSSION

In conclusion the study demonstrated the potential of cubosomes for effective delivery of teicoplanin to replace injections.

Nanoemulsion-based dosage forms for the transdermal drug delivery applications: A review of recent advances

INTRODUCTION

Nanoemulsion-based drug delivery approaches have witnessed massive acceptance over the years and acquired a significant foothold owing to their tremendous benefits over the others. It has widely been used for transdermal delivery of hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs with solubility, lipophilicity, and bioavailability issues.

AREAS COVERED

The review highlights the recent advancements and applications of transdermal nanoemulsions. Their utilities and characteristics, clinical pertinence showcasing intellectual properties and advancements, potential in treating disorders accompanying liquid, semisolid, and solid dosage forms, the ability to modulate a drug's physicochemical properties, and regulatory status are thoroughly summarized.

EXPERT OPINION

Despite tremendous therapeutic utilities and extensive investigations, this field of transdermal nanoemulsion-based technologies yet tackles several challenges such as optimum use of surfactant mixtures, economic burden due to high energy consumption during production, lack of concrete regulatory requirement, etc. Provided with the concrete guidelines on the safe use of surfactants, stability, use of scalable and economical methods, and the use of NE as a transdermal system would solve the purpose best as nanoemulsion shows remarkable improvement in drug release profiles and bioavailability of many drugs. Nevertheless, a better understanding of nanoemulsion technology holds a promising outlook and would land more opportunities and better delivery outcomes.

The technology of transdermal delivery nanosystems: from design and development to preclinical studies

Transdermal administration has gained much attention due to the remarkable advantages such as patient compliance, drug escape from first-pass elimination, favorable pharmacokinetic profile and prolonged release properties. However, the major limitation of these systems is the limited skin penetration of the stratum corneum, the skin's most important barrier, which protects the body from the insertion of substances from the environment. Transdermal drug delivery systems are aiming to the disruption of the stratum corneum in order for the active pharmaceutical ingredients to enter successfully the circulation. Therefore, nanoparticles are holding a great promise because they can act as effective penetration enhancers due to their small size and other physicochemical properties that will be analyzed thoroughly in this report. Apart from the investigation of the physicochemical parameters, a comparison between the different types of nanoparticles will be performed. The complexity of skin anatomy and the unclear mechanisms of penetration should be taken into consideration to reach some realistic conclusions regarding the way that the described parameters affect the skin permeability. To the best of the authors knowledge, this is among the few reports on the literature describing the technology of transdermal delivery systems and how this technology affects the biological activity.

Quality by design (QbD)-based fabrication of atazanavir-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers for lymph targeting: bioavailability enhancement using chylomicron flow block model and toxicity studies

Atazanavir (ATV) is widely used as anti-HIV agent having poor aqueous solubility needs to modulate novel drug delivery system to enhance therapeutic efficiency and safety. The main objective of the present work was to fabricate ATV-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) employing quality by design (QbD) approach to address the challenges of bioavailability and their safety after oral administration. Herein, the main objective was to identify the influencing variables for the production of quality products. Considering this objective, quality target product profile (QTPP) was assigned and a systematic risk assessment study was performed to identify the critical material attributes (CMAs) and critical process parameter (CPP) having an influence on critical quality attributes (CQAs). Lipid concentrations, surfactant concentrations, and pressure of high-pressure homogenizer were identified as CMAs and CPP. ATV-NLCs were prepared by emulsification-high pressure homogenization method and further lyophilized to obtain solid-state NLCs. The effect of formulation variables (CMAs and CPP) on responses like particle size (Y₁), polydispersity index (Y₂), and zeta potential (Y₃) was observed by central composite rotatable design (CCRD). The data were statistically evaluated by ANOVA for confirmation of a significant level (p < 0.05). The optimal conditions of NLCs were obtained by generating design space and desirability value. The lyophilized ATV-NLCs were characterized by DSC, powder X-ray diffraction, and FT-IR analysis. The morphology of NLCs was revealed by TEM and FESEM. In vitro study suggested a sustained release pattern of drug (92.37 ± 1.03%) with a mechanism of Korsmeyer-Peppas model (r² = 0.925, and n = 0.63). In vivo evaluation in Wistar rats showed significantly higher (p < 0.001) plasma drug concentration of ATV-NLCs as compared to ATV-suspension using chylomicron flow block model. The relative bioavailability of ATV-NLCs was obtained to be 2.54 folds. Thus, a safe and promising drug targeting system was successfully developed to improve bioavailability and avoiding first-pass effect ensures to circumvent the acute-toxicity of liver.

Novel Self-Nano-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems Containing Astaxanthin for Topical Skin Delivery

Astaxanthin (ASX) is a potent lipophilic antioxidant derived from the natural pigment that gives marine animals their distinctive red-orange colour and confers protection from ultraviolet radiation. Self nano-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) have been successfully developed and evaluated to increase the skin penetration of ASX and target its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential to the epidermis and dermis. SNEDDS were prepared using a low-temperature spontaneous emulsification method, and their physical characteristics, stability, antioxidant activity, and skin penetration were characterized. Terpenes (D-limonene, geraniol, and farnesol) were included in the SNEDDS formulations to evaluate their potential skin penetration enhancement. An HPLC assay was developed that allowed ASX recovery from skin tissues and quantification. All SNEDDS formulations had droplets in the 20 nm range, with low polydispersity. ASX stability over 28 days storage in light and dark conditions was improved and antioxidant activity was high. SNEDDS-L1 (no terpene) gave significantly increased ASX penetration to the stratum corneum (SC) and the epidermis-dermis-follicle region (E + D + F) compared to an ASX in oil solution and a commercial ASX facial serum product. The SNEDDS-containing D-limonene gave the highest ASX permeation enhancement, with 3.34- and 3.79-fold the amount in the SC and E + D + F, respectively, compared to a similar applied dose of ASX in oil. We concluded that SNEDDS provide an effective formulation strategy for enhanced skin penetration of a highly lipophilic molecule, and when applied to ASX, have the potential to provide topical formulations for UV protection, anti-aging, and inflammatory conditions of the skin.

Nano-Based Biomaterials as Drug Delivery Systems Against Osteoporosis: A Systematic Review of Preclinical and Clinical Evidence

Osteoporosis (OP) is one of the most significant causes of morbidity, particularly in post-menopausal women and older men. Despite its remarkable occurrence, the search for an effective treatment is still an open challenge. Here, we systematically reviewed the preclinical and clinical progress in the development of nano-based materials as drug delivery systems against OP, considering the effects on bone healing and regeneration, the more promising composition and manufacturing methods, and the more hopeful drugs and delivery methods. The results showed that almost all the innovative nano-based delivery systems developed in the last ten years have been assessed by preclinical investigations and are still in the preliminary/early research stages. Our search strategy retrieved only one non-randomized controlled trial (RCT) on oligosaccharide nanomedicine of alginate sodium used for degenerative lumbar diseases in OP patients. Further investigations are mandatory for assessing the clinical translation and commercial purposes of these materials. To date, the main limits for the clinical translation of nano-based materials as drug delivery systems against OP are probably due to the low reproducibility of the manufacturing processes, whose specificity and complexity relies on an adequate chemical, structural, and biomechanical characterization, as the necessary prerequisite before assessing the efficacy of a given treatment or process. Finally, an unsatisfactory drug-loading capacity, an uncontrollable release kinetic, and a low delivery efficiency also limit the clinical application.

Development of Nanoemulsion-based Hydrogel Containing Andrographolide: Physical Properties and Stability Evaluation

Introduction:

Andrographolide is a compound that shows various pharmacological activities, which can be applied topically or orally. Nanoemulsion can improve drug solubility and stability, but has limitations for topical application. Incorporation of nanoemulsion into hydrogel can increase the viscosity of the system which can prolong the drug residence time. The aim of this study was to develop andrographolide nanoemulsion-based hydrogel for topical application.

Method:

Andrographolide nanoemulsion was prepared using Capryol 90 as the oil, Kolliphor RH 40 as the surfactant, and propylene glycol as the cosurfactant. Droplet size and polydispersity index of the nanoemulsions were evaluated using particle size analyzer. D-optimal mixture design was employed to generate the total number of runs (formulation), and obtain the optimum formulation. Fourteen formulations of nanoemulsion-based hydrogel were prepared by incorporating nanoemulsion into the hydrogel base (1:1). Carbopol was employed as the gelling agent, whereas other excipients including propylene glycol, oleic acid, triethanolamine, methylparaben, and propylparaben were also added to produce hydrogel base. Nanoemulsion-based hydrogel was evaluated for its pH, viscosity, and physical appearance (after 8 weeks of storage).

Results:

The result revealed that nanoemulsion-based hydrogel containing 34.65% of carbopol, 1.35% of triethanolamine, and 9% of propylene glycol was selected as an optimum formulation which shows acceptable pH, viscosity, and physical appearance. This optimum nanoemulsion-based hydrogel has pH of 6.50 ± 0.02, and 2492.33 ± 36.91 cP of viscosity with milky white color, and smooth homogeneous texture.

Conclusion:

This study suggested that andrographolide can be successfully formulated into an acceptable nanoemulsion-based hydrogel.

Optimization and Development of Methotrexate- and Resveratrol-Loaded Nanoemulsion Formulation Using Box-Behnken Design for Rheumatoid Arthritis

Methotrexate (MTX) is the first line of choice for the management of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and has been reported for its low bioavailability and side effects. Combination therapy has been widely investigated to overcome bioavailability issues and to reduce adverse effects associated with monotherapy. Various phytoconstituents such as resveratrol (RSV) and curcumin have been found to possess potent anti-inflammatory activity via downregulating the signaling of cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha) and nuclear factor kappa B signaling. The prime objective of this study was to develop transdermal gel containing MTX-RSV loaded nanoemulsions (NEs) to overcome bioavailability issues and adverse effects of RA monotherapy. The NEs optimized by using Box-Behnken Design were incorporated within gel, and an in vitro skin permeation study performed on rat skin by using vertical Franz diffusion cells exhibited controlled drug release up to 48 h. Subsequently, anti-inflammatory and potential anti-arthritic activities of the combination in nanocarrier were assessed in rats and showed 78.76 ± 4.16% inhibition in inflammation and better anti-arthritic effects. Consequently, integration of dual delivery with nanotechnology can hopefully produce successful therapeutic options for rheumatic diseases.

Development of a Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Optimized Topical Delivery of Clofazimine

A quality-by-design and characterization approach was followed to ensure development of self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDSs) destined for topical delivery of the highly lipophilic clofazimine. Solubility and water-titration experiments identified spontaneous emulsification capacity of different excipient combinations and clofazimine. After identifying self-emulsification regions, check-point formulations were selected within the self-emulsification region by considering characteristics required to achieve optimized topical drug delivery. Check-point formulations, able to withstand phase separation after 24 h at an ambient temperature, were subjected to characterization studies. Experiments involved droplet size evaluation; size distribution; zeta-potential; self-emulsification time and efficacy; viscosity and pH measurement; cloud point assessment; and thermodynamic stability studies. SEDDSs with favorable properties, i.e., topical drug delivery, were subjected to dermal diffusion studies. Successful in vitro topical clofazimine delivery was observed. Olive oil facilitated the highest topical delivery of clofazimine probably due to increased oleic acid levels that enhanced stratum corneum lipid disruption, followed by improved dermal clofazimine delivery. Finally, isothermal microcalometric experiments studied the compatibility of excipients. Potential interactions were depicted between argan oil and clofazimine as well as between Span®60 and argan-, macadamia- and olive oil, respectively. However, despite some mundane incompatibilities, successful development of topical SEDDSs achieved enhanced topical clofazimine delivery.

Transdermal delivery of fluvastatin sodium via tailored spanlastic nanovesicles: mitigated Freund's adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis in rats through suppressing p38 MAPK signaling pathway

The current study aimed to encapsulate fluvastatin sodium (FVS), a member of the statins family possessing pleiotropic effects in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), into spanlastic nanovesicles (SNVs) for transdermal delivery. This novel delivery could surmount FVS associated oral encumbrances such as apparent first-pass effect, poor bioavailability and short elimination half-life, hence, accomplishing platform for management of RA. To consummate this objective, FVS-loaded SNVs were elaborated by thin film hydration method, utilizing either Span 60 or Span 80, together with Tween 80 or Brij 35 as an edge activator according to full factorial design (2⁴). Applying Design-Expert^® software, the influence of formulation variables on SNVs physicochemical properties and the optimized formulation selection were explored. Additionally, the pharmacokinetic studies were scrutinized in rats. Furthermore, in Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis, rheumatoid markers, TNF-α, IL-10, p38 MAPK, and antioxidant parameters were measured. The optimum SNVs were nano-scaled spherical vesicles (201.54 ± 9.16 nm), having reasonable entrapment efficiency (71.28 ± 2.05%), appropriate release over 8 h (89.45 ± 3.64%) and adequate permeation characteristics across the skin (402.55 ± 27.48 µg/cm²). The pharmacokinetic study disclosed ameliorated bioavailability of the optimum SNVs gel by 2.79- and 4.59-fold as compared to the oral solution as well as the traditional gel, respectively. Moreover, it elicited a significant suppression of p38 MAPK expression and also significant improvement of all other measured biomarkers. Concisely, the foregoing findings proposed that SNVs can be auspicious for augmenting FVS transdermal delivery for management of RA.