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Mousavihashemi S, Murcia‐López S, Rodriguez‐Olguin MA, Gardeniers H, Andreu T, Morante JR, Susarrey Arce A, Flox C. Overcoming Voltage Losses in Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries Using WO 3 as a Positive Electrode. ChemCatChem 2022; 14:e202201106. [PMID: 37063813 PMCID: PMC10100004 DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202201106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are appealing large-scale energy storage systems due to their unique properties of independent energy/power design. The VRFBs stack design is crucial for technology deployment in power applications. Besides the design, the stack suffers from high voltage losses caused by the electrodes. The introduction of active sites into the electrode to facilitate the reaction kinetic is crucial in boosting the power rate of the VRFBs. Here, an O-rich layer has been applied onto structured graphite felt (GF) by depositing WO3 to increase the oxygen species content. The oxygen species are the active site during the positive reaction (VO2 +/VO2+) in VRFB. The increased electrocatalytic activity is demonstrated by the monoclinic (m)-WO3/GF electrode that minimizes the voltage losses, yielding excellent performance results in terms of power density output and limiting current density (556 mWcm-2@800 mAcm-2). The results confirm that the m-WO3/GF electrode is a promising electrode for high-power in VRFBs, overcoming the performance-limiting issues in a positive half-reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyedabolfazl Mousavihashemi
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy ResearchJardins de les Dones de Negre 1Sant Adriá de Besós08930Spain
- Aalto University School of Chemical EngineeringKemistintie 1Espoo02015Finland
| | - Sebastián Murcia‐López
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy ResearchJardins de les Dones de Negre 1Sant Adriá de Besós08930Spain
| | | | - Han Gardeniers
- Mesoscale Chemical Systems MESA+ InstituteUniversity of TwentePO. Box 217EnschedeAE 7500The Netherlands
| | - Teresa Andreu
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy ResearchJardins de les Dones de Negre 1Sant Adriá de Besós08930Spain
- Institut de Nanociència i Nanotecnologia (IN2UB)Universitat de BarcelonaMartí i Franques, 108028BarcelonaSpain
| | - Juan Ramon Morante
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy ResearchJardins de les Dones de Negre 1Sant Adriá de Besós08930Spain
- Facultat de FísicaUniversitat de BarcelonaC. Martí i Franqués, 108028BarcelonaSpain
| | - Arturo Susarrey Arce
- Mesoscale Chemical Systems MESA+ InstituteUniversity of TwentePO. Box 217EnschedeAE 7500The Netherlands
| | - Cristina Flox
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy ResearchJardins de les Dones de Negre 1Sant Adriá de Besós08930Spain
- Institut de Ciencia de Materials de Barcelona CSIC Campus UABBarcelona08193Spain
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2
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Solar Energy Storage in an All-Vanadium Photoelectrochemical Cell: Structural Effect of Titania Nanocatalyst in Photoanode. ENERGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/en15124508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Solar energy storage in the form of chemical energy is considered a promising alternative for solar energy utilization. High-performance solar energy conversion and storage significantly rely on the sufficient active surface area and the efficient transport of both reactants and charge carriers. Herein, the structure evolution of titania nanotube photocatalyst during the photoanode fabrication and its effect on photoelectrochemical activity in a microfluidic all-vanadium photoelectrochemical cell was investigated. Experimental results have shown that there exist opposite variation trends for the pore structure and crystallinity of the photocatalyst. With the increase in calcination temperature, the active surface area and pore volume were gradually declined while the crystallinity was significantly improved. The trade-off between the gradually deteriorated sintering and optimized crystallinity of the photocatalyst then determined the photoelectrochemical reaction efficiency. The optimal average photocurrent density and vanadium ions conversion rate emerged at an appropriate calcination temperature, where both the plentiful pores and large active surface area, as well as good crystallinity, could be ensured to promote the photoelectrochemical activity. This work reveals the structure evolution of the nanostructured photocatalyst in influencing the solar energy conversion and storage, which is useful for the structural design of the photoelectrodes in real applications.
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3
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Almakrami H, Wei Z, Lin G, Jin X, Agar E, Liu F. An integrated solar cell with built-in energy storage capability. Electrochim Acta 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2020.136368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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4
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Lin Y, Feng H, Chen R, Zhang B, An L. One-dimensional TiO 2 nanotube array photoanode for a microfluidic all-vanadium photoelectrochemical cell for solar energy storage. Catal Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cy00342e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In this work, a highly efficient TiO2 nanotube array photoanode prepared by anodizing treatment of titanium foil is developed for an all-vanadium photoelectrochemical cell with a miniaturized design for solar energy storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Lin
- Key Laboratory of Low-grade Energy Utilization Technologies and Systems (Chongqing University)
- Ministry of Education
- Chongqing 400030
- China
- Institute of Engineering Thermophysics
| | - Hao Feng
- Institute of Engineering Thermophysics
- School of Energy and Power Engineering
- Chongqing University
- Chongqing 400030
- China
| | - Rong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Low-grade Energy Utilization Technologies and Systems (Chongqing University)
- Ministry of Education
- Chongqing 400030
- China
- Institute of Engineering Thermophysics
| | - Biao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Low-grade Energy Utilization Technologies and Systems (Chongqing University)
- Ministry of Education
- Chongqing 400030
- China
- Institute of Engineering Thermophysics
| | - Liang An
- Department of Mechanical Engineering
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
- Kowloon
- China
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5
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Sun M, Chen Z, Li J, Hou J, Xu F, Xu L, Zeng R. Enhanced visible light-driven activity of TiO2 nanotube array photoanode co-sensitized by “green” AgInS2 photosensitizer and In2S3 buffer layer. Electrochim Acta 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2018.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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6
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An organic-inorganic hybrid photoelectrochemical storage cell for improved solar energy storage. Electrochim Acta 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2017.11.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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7
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Flox C, Murcia-López S, Carretero NM, Ros C, Morante JR, Andreu T. Role of Bismuth in the Electrokinetics of Silicon Photocathodes for Solar Rechargeable Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries. CHEMSUSCHEM 2018; 11:125-129. [PMID: 29136333 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201701879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Revised: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The ability of crystalline silicon to photoassist the V3+ /V2+ cathodic reaction under simulated solar irradiation, combined with the effect of bismuth have led to important electrochemical improvements. Besides the photovoltage supplied by the photovoltaics, additional decrease in the onset potentials, high reversibility of the V3+ /V2+ redox pair, and improvement in the electrokinetics were attained thanks to the addition of bismuth. In fact, Bi0 deposition has shown to slightly decrease the photocurrent, but the significant enhancement in the charge transfer, reflected in the overall electrochemical performance clearly justifies its use as additive in a photoassisted system for maximizing the efficiency of solar charge to battery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Flox
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, Sant Adrià de Besós, 08930, Spain
| | - Sebastián Murcia-López
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, Sant Adrià de Besós, 08930, Spain
| | - Nina M Carretero
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, Sant Adrià de Besós, 08930, Spain
| | - Carles Ros
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, Sant Adrià de Besós, 08930, Spain
| | - Juan R Morante
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, Sant Adrià de Besós, 08930, Spain
- Faculty of Physics, University of Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Teresa Andreu
- IREC, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, Sant Adrià de Besós, 08930, Spain
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8
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Jiao X, Chen R, Zhu X, Liao Q, Ye D, Zhang B, An L, Feng H, Zhang W. A microfluidic all-vanadium photoelectrochemical cell for solar energy storage. Electrochim Acta 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2017.11.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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9
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Luo B, Ye D, Wang L. Recent Progress on Integrated Energy Conversion and Storage Systems. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2017; 4:1700104. [PMID: 28932673 PMCID: PMC5604375 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201700104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 04/02/2017] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Over the last few decades, there has been increasing interest in the design and construction of integrated energy conversion and storage systems (IECSSs) that can simultaneously capture and store various forms of energies from nature. A large number of IECSSs have been developed with different combination of energy conversion technologies such as solar cells, mechanical generators and thermoelectric generators and energy storage devices such as rechargeable batteries and supercapacitors. This review summarizes the recent advancements to date of IECSSs based on different energy sources including solar, mechanical, thermal as well as multiple types of energies, with a special focus on the system configuration and working mechanism. With the rapid development of new energy conversion and storage technologies, innovative high performance IECSSs are of high expectation to be realised for diverse practical applications in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Luo
- Nanomaterials CentreSchool of Chemical Engineering and Australian Institute for Bioengineering and NanotechnologyThe University of QueenslandSt LuciaQLD4072Australia
| | - Delai Ye
- Nanomaterials CentreSchool of Chemical Engineering and Australian Institute for Bioengineering and NanotechnologyThe University of QueenslandSt LuciaQLD4072Australia
| | - Lianzhou Wang
- Nanomaterials CentreSchool of Chemical Engineering and Australian Institute for Bioengineering and NanotechnologyThe University of QueenslandSt LuciaQLD4072Australia
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10
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An All-vanadium Continuous-flow Photoelectrochemical Cell for Extending State-of-charge in Solar Energy Storage. Sci Rep 2017; 7:629. [PMID: 28377590 PMCID: PMC5428687 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-00585-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Greater levels of solar energy storage provide an effective solution to the inherent nature of intermittency, and can substantially improve reliability, availability, and quality of the renewable energy source. Here we demonstrated an all-vanadium (all-V) continuous-flow photoelectrochemical storage cell (PESC) to achieve efficient and high-capacity storage of solar energy, through improving both photocurrent and photocharging depth. It was discovered that forced convective flow of electrolytes greatly enhanced the photocurrent by 5 times comparing to that with stagnant electrolytes. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) study revealed a great reduction of charge transfer resistance with forced convective flow of electrolytes as a result of better mass transport at U-turns of the tortuous serpentine flow channel of the cell. Taking advantage of the improved photocurrent and diminished charge transfer resistance, the all-V continuous-flow PESC was capable of producing ~20% gain in state of charge (SOC) under AM1.5 illumination for ca. 1.7 hours without any external bias. This gain of SOC was surprisingly three times more than that with stagnant electrolytes during a 25-hour period of photocharge.
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11
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Winsberg J, Hagemann T, Janoschka T, Hager MD, Schubert US. Redox-Flow Batteries: From Metals to Organic Redox-Active Materials. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 56:686-711. [PMID: 28070964 PMCID: PMC5248651 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201604925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Research on redox-flow batteries (RFBs) is currently experiencing a significant upturn, stimulated by the growing need to store increasing quantities of sustainably generated electrical energy. RFBs are promising candidates for the creation of smart grids, particularly when combined with photovoltaics and wind farms. To achieve the goal of "green", safe, and cost-efficient energy storage, research has shifted from metal-based materials to organic active materials in recent years. This Review presents an overview of various flow-battery systems. Relevant studies concerning their history are discussed as well as their development over the last few years from the classical inorganic, to organic/inorganic, to RFBs with organic redox-active cathode and anode materials. Available technologies are analyzed in terms of their technical, economic, and environmental aspects; the advantages and limitations of these systems are also discussed. Further technological challenges and prospective research possibilities are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Winsberg
- Lehrstuhl für Organische und Makromolekulare Chemie (IOMC), Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry Jena (CEEC Jena), Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Philosophenweg 7a, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Tino Hagemann
- Lehrstuhl für Organische und Makromolekulare Chemie (IOMC), Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry Jena (CEEC Jena), Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Philosophenweg 7a, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias Janoschka
- Lehrstuhl für Organische und Makromolekulare Chemie (IOMC), Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry Jena (CEEC Jena), Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Philosophenweg 7a, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Martin D Hager
- Lehrstuhl für Organische und Makromolekulare Chemie (IOMC), Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry Jena (CEEC Jena), Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Philosophenweg 7a, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Ulrich S Schubert
- Lehrstuhl für Organische und Makromolekulare Chemie (IOMC), Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry Jena (CEEC Jena), Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Philosophenweg 7a, 07743, Jena, Germany
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12
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Winsberg J, Hagemann T, Janoschka T, Hager MD, Schubert US. Redox‐Flow‐Batterien: von metallbasierten zu organischen Aktivmaterialien. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201604925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jan Winsberg
- Lehrstuhl für Organische und Makromolekulare Chemie (IOMC) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Humboldtstraße 10 07743 Jena Deutschland
- Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry Jena (CEEC Jena) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Philosophenweg 7a 07743 Jena Deutschland
| | - Tino Hagemann
- Lehrstuhl für Organische und Makromolekulare Chemie (IOMC) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Humboldtstraße 10 07743 Jena Deutschland
- Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry Jena (CEEC Jena) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Philosophenweg 7a 07743 Jena Deutschland
| | - Tobias Janoschka
- Lehrstuhl für Organische und Makromolekulare Chemie (IOMC) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Humboldtstraße 10 07743 Jena Deutschland
- Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry Jena (CEEC Jena) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Philosophenweg 7a 07743 Jena Deutschland
| | - Martin D. Hager
- Lehrstuhl für Organische und Makromolekulare Chemie (IOMC) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Humboldtstraße 10 07743 Jena Deutschland
- Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry Jena (CEEC Jena) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Philosophenweg 7a 07743 Jena Deutschland
| | - Ulrich S. Schubert
- Lehrstuhl für Organische und Makromolekulare Chemie (IOMC) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Humboldtstraße 10 07743 Jena Deutschland
- Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry Jena (CEEC Jena) Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Philosophenweg 7a 07743 Jena Deutschland
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13
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Sol–gel Derived Mixed Oxide Zirconia: Titania Green Heterogeneous Catalysts and Their Performance in Acridine Derivatives Synthesis. Catal Letters 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10562-015-1677-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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14
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Noack J, Roznyatovskaya N, Herr T, Fischer P. The Chemistry of Redox-Flow Batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:9776-809. [PMID: 26119683 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201410823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The development of various redox-flow batteries for the storage of fluctuating renewable energy has intensified in recent years because of their peculiar ability to be scaled separately in terms of energy and power, and therefore potentially to reduce the costs of energy storage. This has resulted in a considerable increase in the number of publications on redox-flow batteries. This was a motivation to present a comprehensive and critical overview of the features of this type of batteries, focusing mainly on the chemistry of electrolytes and introducing a thorough systematic classification to reveal their potential for future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Noack
- Redox Flow Batteries Project Group, Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology, Applied Electrochemistry, Joseph-von-Fraunhofer-Strasse 7, 76327 Pfinztal (Germany).
| | - Nataliya Roznyatovskaya
- Redox Flow Batteries Project Group, Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology, Applied Electrochemistry, Joseph-von-Fraunhofer-Strasse 7, 76327 Pfinztal (Germany)
| | - Tatjana Herr
- Redox Flow Batteries Project Group, Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology, Applied Electrochemistry, Joseph-von-Fraunhofer-Strasse 7, 76327 Pfinztal (Germany)
| | - Peter Fischer
- Redox Flow Batteries Project Group, Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology, Applied Electrochemistry, Joseph-von-Fraunhofer-Strasse 7, 76327 Pfinztal (Germany)
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15
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Noack J, Roznyatovskaya N, Herr T, Fischer P. Die Chemie der Redox-Flow-Batterien. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201410823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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16
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Yu M, McCulloch WD, Beauchamp DR, Huang Z, Ren X, Wu Y. Aqueous Lithium–Iodine Solar Flow Battery for the Simultaneous Conversion and Storage of Solar Energy. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:8332-5. [PMID: 26102317 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b03626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhe Yu
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - William D. McCulloch
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Damian R. Beauchamp
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Zhongjie Huang
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Xiaodi Ren
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Yiying Wu
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 100 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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17
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Liu D, Zi W, Sajjad SD, Hsu C, Shen Y, Wei M, Liu F. Reversible Electron Storage in an All-Vanadium Photoelectrochemical Storage Cell: Synergy between Vanadium Redox and Hybrid Photocatalyst. ACS Catal 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/cs502024k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dong Liu
- Electrochemical Energy Laboratory,
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, United States
| | - Wei Zi
- Electrochemical Energy Laboratory,
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, United States
| | - Syed D. Sajjad
- Electrochemical Energy Laboratory,
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, United States
| | - Chiajen Hsu
- Electrochemical Energy Laboratory,
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, United States
| | - Yi Shen
- Electrochemical Energy Laboratory,
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, United States
| | - Mingsheng Wei
- Electrochemical Energy Laboratory,
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, United States
| | - Fuqiang Liu
- Electrochemical Energy Laboratory,
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, United States
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