Charge Storage on Ionic Liquid Electric Double Layer: The Role of the Electrode Material

Synergistic Effects of the Electric Field Induced by Imidazolium Rotation and Hydrogen Bonding in Electrocatalysis of CO2

The roles of the ionic liquid (IL), 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([EMIM][BF4]), and water in controlling the mechanism, energetics, and electrocatalytic activity of CO2 reduction to CO on silver in nonaqueous electrolytes were investigated. The first electron transfer occurs to CO2 at reduced overpotentials when it is trapped between the planes of the [EMIM]+ ring and the electrode surface due to cation reorientation as determined from voltammetry, in situ surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, and density functional theory calculations. Within this interface, water up to 0.5 M does not induce significant Faradaic activity, opposing the notion of it being a free proton source. Instead, water acts as a hydrogen bond donor, and the proton is sourced from [EMIM]+. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that alcohols with varying acidities tune the hydrogen bonding network in the interfacial microenvironment to lower the energetics required for CO2 reduction. The hydrogen bonding suppresses the formation of inactive carboxylate species, thus preserving the catalytic activity of [EMIM]+. The ability to tune the hydrogen bonding network opens new avenues for advancing IL-mediated electrocatalytic reactions in nonaqueous electrolytes.

Mixing Ionic Liquids Affects the Kinetics and Thermodynamics of the Oxygen/Superoxide Redox Couple in the Context of Oxygen Sensing

The electrochemical oxygen reduction reaction is vital for applications such as fuel cells, metal air batteries and for oxygen gas sensing. Oxygen undergoes a 1-electron reduction process in dry ionic liquids (ILs) to form the electrogenerated superoxide ion that is solvated and stabilized by IL cations. In this work, the oxygen/superoxide (O₂/O₂ ^•-) redox couple has been used to understand the effect of mixing ILs with different cations in the context of developing designer electrolytes for oxygen sensing, by employing cyclic voltammetry at both gold and platinum electrodes. Different cations with a range of sizes, geometries and aromatic/aliphatic character were studied with a common bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([NTf₂]^-) anion. Diethylmethylsulfonium ([S_2,2,1]⁺), N-butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinum ([C₄mpyrr]⁺) and tetradecyltrihexylphosphonium ([P_14,6,6,6]⁺) cations were mixed with a common 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium ([C₄mim]⁺) cation at mole fractions (x) of [C₄mim]⁺ of 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1. Both the redox kinetics and thermodynamics were found to be highly dependent on the cation structure and the electrode material used. Large deviations from "ideal" mixtures were observed for mixtures of [C₄mim][NTf₂] with [C₄mpyrr][NTf₂] on gold electrodes, suggesting a much higher amount of [C₄mim]⁺ ions near the electrode surface despite the large excess of [C₄mpyrr]⁺ in the bulk. The electrical double layer structure was probed for a mixture of [C₄mim]_0.2[C₄mpyrr]_0.8[NTf₂] using atomic force microscopy measurements on Au, revealing that the first layer was more like [C₄mim][NTf₂] than [C₄mpyrr][NTf₂]. Unusually fast kinetics for O₂/O₂ ^•- in mixtures of [C₄mim]⁺ with [P_14,6,6,6]⁺ were also observed in the electrochemistry results, which warrants further follow-up studies to elucidate this promising behavior. Overall, it is important to understand the effect on the kinetic and thermodynamic properties of electrochemical reactions when mixing solvents, to aid in the creation of designer electrolytes with favorable properties for their intended application.

Hydrogen Bond Donors Influence on the Electrochemical Performance of Composite Graphene Electrodes/Deep Eutectic Solvents Interface

The development of energy storage devices with better performance relies on the use of innovative materials and electrolytes, aiming to reduce the carbon footprint through the screening of low toxicity electrolytes and solvent-free electrode design protocols. The application of nanostructured carbon materials with high specific surface area, to prepare composite electrodes, is being considered as a promising starting point towards improving the power and energy efficiency of energy storage devices. Non-aqueous electrolytes synthesized using greener approaches with lower environmental impact make deep eutectic solvents (DES) promising alternatives for electrochemical energy storage and conversion applications. Accordingly, this work proposes a systematic study on the effect of the composition of DES containing a diol and an amide as HBD (hydrogen bond donor: 1,2-propylene glycol and urea), on the electrochemical performance of graphene and graphite composite electrodes/DES electrolyte interface. Glassy carbon (GC) was selected as the bare electrode material substrate to prepare the composite formulations since it provides an electrochemically reproducible surface. Gravimetric capacitance was measured for commercial graphene and commercial graphite/GC composite electrodes in contact with choline chloride, complexed with 1,2-propylene glycol, and urea as the HBD in 1:2 molar ratio. The electrochemical stability was followed by assessing the charge/discharge curves at 1, 2, and 4 A g−1. For comparison purposes, a parallel study was performed using commercial graphite. A four-fold increase in gravimetric capacitance was obtained when replacing commercial graphite (1.70 F g−1) by commercial graphene (6.19 F g−1) in contact with 1,2-propylene glycol-based DES. When using urea based DES no significant change in gravimetric capacitance was observed when commercial graphite is replaced by commercial graphene.

The Influence of Anion Structure on the Ionic Liquids/Au (100) Interface by Molecular Dynamics Simulations

The microstructure of electrical double layers (EDLs) of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([Bmim]BF₄), 1-butyl-3-methylimidazoliumhexafluorophosphate ([Bmim]PF₆), and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazoliumbis (trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide ([Bmim]TFSI) were studied by quantum chemical calculation and molecular dynamics simulation. For the set of ionic liquids investigated here, we found some interesting universal laws due to differences geometry and electronic structure of anions. We show that the morphology of the three anions on the electrode surface is different due to the different geometric structure. The plane formed by the bottom three atoms of the symmetrically tetrahedral BF₄^- and the bottom atom of the symmetrically octahedral PF₆^- face the electrode whether the electrode is charged or not, while the conformation of twisted V-shaped TFSI^- changes with different surface charges on the electrode. Meanwhile, we also demonstrate that the energy of highest occupied molecular orbital (E_HOMO), the energy of lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (E_LUMO) and their energies gap (ΔE) are very interesting due to different electronic structure of anions. Specially, the E_HOMO, E_LUMO, and ΔE were related to the electronegativity of the central atom in the case of the same symmetry on the neutral surface. The more electronegative the central atom is, the lower E_HOMO, E_LUMO and higher ΔE values are. However, on the charged surface, the interaction between anion and electrode is opposite to ΔE. Moreover, different arrangements of anion and cation are related to the interaction between particles. The stronger interaction leads a double-row structure and the weak interaction lead worm-like and island patterns on Au (100) surface. In general, we observed that the higher ΔE cause stronger interaction, which lead to different patterns on Au (100) surface. Meanwhile, we also confirmed that the stronger interaction between particles and electrode lead to the thinner effective EDL and a large differential capacitance value. These results provide a new perspective for double-layer structure in atomic and molecular level. This is helpful to deepen the understanding of the interface phenomena and characteristics of [Bmim]BF₄, [Bmim]PF₆, and [Bmim]TFSI on Au (100) system and provide theoretical basis for the application of these kind of systems.

Microstructural and Dynamical Heterogeneities in Ionic Liquids

Ionic liquids (ILs) are a special category of molten salts solely composed of ions with varied molecular symmetry and charge delocalization. The versatility in combining varied cation-anion moieties and in functionalizing ions with different atoms and molecular groups contributes to their peculiar interactions ranging from weak isotropic associations to strong, specific, and anisotropic forces. A delicate interplay among intra- and intermolecular interactions facilitates the formation of heterogeneous microstructures and liquid morphologies, which further contributes to their striking dynamical properties. Microstructural and dynamical heterogeneities of ILs lead to their multifaceted properties described by an inherent designer feature, which makes ILs important candidates for novel solvents, electrolytes, and functional materials in academia and industrial applications. Due to a massive number of combinations of ion pairs with ion species having distinct molecular structures and IL mixtures containing varied molecular solvents, a comprehensive understanding of their hierarchical structural and dynamical quantities is of great significance for a rational selection of ILs with appropriate properties and thereafter advancing their macroscopic functionalities in applications. In this review, we comprehensively trace recent advances in understanding delicate interplay of strong and weak interactions that underpin their complex phase behaviors with a particular emphasis on understanding heterogeneous microstructures and dynamics of ILs in bulk liquids, in mixtures with cosolvents, and in interfacial regions.

Immobilization of uranium into magnetite from aqueous solution by electrodepositing approach

Immobilization of uranium into magnetite (Fe₃O₄), which was generated from metallic iron by electrochemical method, was proposed to rapidly remove uranium from aqueous solution. The effects of electrochemical parameters such as electrode materials, voltage, electrode gap, reaction time and pH value on the crystallization of Fe₃O₄ and uranium removal efficiencies were investigated. More than 90% uranium in the solution was precipitated with Fe₃O₄ under laboratory conditions when uranium concentration range from 0.5mg/L to 10mg/L. The Fe₃O₄ crystallization mechanism and immobilization of uranium was proved by XPS, XRD, TEM, FTIR and VSM methods. The results indicated that the cationic (including Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺ and U(VI)) migrate to cathode side under the electric field and the uranium was incorporated or adsorbed by Fe₃O₄ which was generated at cathode while the pH ranges between 2-7. The uranium-containing precipitate of Fe₃O₄ can exist stably at the acid concentration below 60g/L. Furthermore, the precipitate may be used as valuable resources for uranium or iron recycling, which resulted in no secondary pollution in the removal of uranium from aqueous solution.

Influence of the anion on the properties of ionic liquid mixtures: a molecular dynamics study

Big anions enhance the non-polar network in IL mixtures, while smaller ones win the competition for the imidazolium cation.

Effects and controls of capacitive hysteresis in ionic liquid electrochemical measurements

Capacitance vs. potential relationships help electrochemists better understand electrode–liquid interfacial behaviors.

The influence of water content in a proton-conducting ionic liquid on the double layer properties of the Pt/PIL interface

The influence of the water content of 2-sulfoethylmethylammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate [2-Sema][TfO] on the double layer properties of the interface of platinum and the proton conducting ionic liquid (PIL) is investigated by means of impedance spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry. By fitting the impedance spectra as complex capacitances, up to four differential double layer capacitances and corresponding time constants are obtained, depending on the potential (U = 0-1.6 V/RHE), water content (0.7-6.1 wt%) and temperature (T = 70-110 °C). Within the whole potential range investigated, a high frequency capacitance, C₁, and a low frequency capacitance, C₂, can be calculated. In the potential region of hydrogen underpotential deposition (H_UPD), C₁ can be separated into two parts, C_1a and C_1b. Whereas the high frequency capacitive processes can mainly be attributed to ion transport processes in the double layer, the low frequency process is ascribed to changes in the interfacial layer, including ad-/desorption and Faradaic processes. Alternative interpretations regarding the reorientation of ions, reconstruction of the metal surface and partial electron transfer between anions and Pt are considered.

A comparative study of room temperature ionic liquids and their organic solvent mixtures near charged electrodes

The structural properties of electrolytes consisting of solutions of ionic liquids in a polar solvent at charged electrode surfaces are investigated using classical atomistic simulations. The studied electrolytes consisted of tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (NEt4-BF4), 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (c2mim-BF4) and 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (c8mim-BF4) salts dissolved in acetonitrile solvent. We discuss the influence of electrolyte concentration, chemical structure of the ionic salt, temperature, conducting versus semiconducting nature of the electrode, electrode geometry and surface roughness on the electric double layer structure and capacitance and compare these properties with those obtained for pure room temperature ionic liquids. We show that electrolytes consisting of solutions of ions can behave quite differently from pure ionic liquid electrolytes.

Influence of droplet coverage on the electrochemical response of planar microelectrodes and potential solving strategies based on nesting concept

Recently, biosensors have been widely used for the detection of bacteria, viruses and other toxins. Electrodes, as commonly used transducers, are a vital part of electrochemical biosensors. The coverage of the droplets can change significantly based on the hydrophobicity of the microelectrode surface materials. In the present research, screen-printed interdigitated microelectrodes (SPIMs), as one type of planar microelectrode, were applied to investigate the influence of droplet coverage on electrochemical response. Furthermore, three dimensional (3D) printing technology was employed to print smart devices with different diameters based on the nesting concept. Theoretical explanations were proposed to elucidate the influence of the droplet coverage on the electrochemical response. 3D-printed ring devices were used to incubate the SPIMs and the analytical performances of the SPIMs were tested. According to the results obtained, our device successfully improved the stability of the signal responses and eliminated irregular signal changes to a large extent. Our proposed method based on the nesting concept provides a promising method for the fabrication of stable electrochemical biosensors. We also introduced two types of electrode bases to improve the signal stability.

Interactions in the ionic liquid [EMIM][FAP]: a coupled experimental and computational analysis

IR spectroscopy and DFT calculations were combined to explore the anion conformers and access the hydrogen-bonding phenomenon in RTIL [EMIM][FAP].

Tailoring graphene-based electrodes from semiconducting to metallic to increase the energy density in supercapacitors

The semiconducting character of graphene and some carbon-based electrodes can lead to noticeably lower total capacitances and stored energy densities in electric double layer (EDL)capacitors. This paper discusses the chemical and electronic structure modifications that enhance the available energy bands, density of states and quantum capacitance of graphene substrates near the Fermi level, therefore restoring the conducting character of these materials. The doping of graphene with p or n dopants, such as boron and nitrogen atoms, or the introduction of vacancy defects that introduce zigzag edges, can significantly increase the quantum capacitance within the potential range of interest for the energy storage applications by either shifting the Dirac point away from the Fermi level or by eliminating the Dirac point. We show that a combination of doping and vacancies at realistic concentrations is sufficient to increase the capacitance of a graphene-based electrode to within 1 μF cm(−2) from that of a metallic surface.Using a combination of ab initio calculations and classical molecular dynamics simulations we estimate how the changes in the quantum capacitance of these electrode materials affect the total capacitance stored by the open structure EDL capacitors containing room temperature ionic liquid electrolytes.

Capacitive Energy Storage: Current and Future Challenges

Capacitive energy storage devices are receiving increasing experimental and theoretical attention due to their enormous potential for energy applications. Current research in this field is focused on the improvement of both the energy and the power density of supercapacitors by optimizing the nanostructure of porous electrodes and the chemical structure/composition of the electrolytes. However, the understanding of the underlying correlations and the mechanisms of electric double layer formation near charged surfaces and inside nanoporous electrodes is complicated by the complex interplay of several molecular scale phenomena. This Perspective presents several aspects regarding the experimental and theoretical research in the field, discusses the current atomistic and molecular scale understanding of the mechanisms of energy and charge storage, and provides a brief outlook to the future developments and applications of these devices.

Ionic liquid based lithium battery electrolytes: fundamental benefits of utilising both TFSI and FSI anions?

Synergetic effects of FSI–TFSI mixed electrolytes?