The Effect of Annealing Temperature on Nickel on Reduced Graphene Oxide Catalysts on Urea Electrooxidation

Urea catalytic oxidation for energy and environmental applications

Urea is one of the most essential reactive nitrogen species in the nitrogen cycle and plays an indispensable role in the water-energy-food nexus. However, untreated urea or urine wastewater causes severe environmental pollution and threatens human health. Electrocatalytic and photo(electro)catalytic urea oxidation technologies under mild conditions have become promising methods for energy recovery and environmental remediation. An in-depth understanding of the reaction mechanisms of the urea oxidation reaction (UOR) is important to design efficient electrocatalysts/photo(electro)catalysts for these technologies. This review provides a critical appraisal of the recent advances in the UOR by means of both electrocatalysis and photo(electro)catalysis, aiming to comprehensively assess this emerging field from fundamentals and materials, to practical applications. The emphasis of this review is on the design and development strategies for electrocatalysts/photo(electro)catalysts based on reaction pathways. Meanwhile, the UOR in natural urine is discussed, focusing on the influence of impurity ions. A particular emphasis is placed on the application of the UOR in energy and environmental fields, such as hydrogen production by urea electrolysis, urea fuel cells, and urea/urine wastewater remediation. Finally, future directions, prospects, and remaining challenges are discussed for this emerging research field. This critical review significantly increases the understanding of current progress in urea conversion and the development of a sustainable nitrogen economy.

Direct Urea/H2O2 Fuel Cell with a Hierarchical Porous Nanoglass Anode for High-Efficiency Energy Conversion

Direct urea/H₂O₂ fuel cells (DUFCs) constitute a sustainable bifunctional energy conversion technique devoted to simultaneously eliminating environmental wastewater with urea and generating clean energy. However, exploring an efficient anode material for DUFCs still remains a huge challenge. In this work, a Ni-P hierarchical porous nanoglass (HPNG) catalytic electrode was developed via a low-cost, industrially available electrodeposition technique, which exhibits one of the best performances reported so far in the urea oxidation reaction (UOR), with a potential of 1.330 V at a current density of 10 mA cm^-2 and a Tafel slope of 9.77 mV dec^-1. The superior UOR performance of the HPNG electrode is attributed to the excellent intrinsic catalytic activity of NG with a high-energy state and an extremely enlarged surface area from the unique 3D hierarchical porous structure. Furthermore, a DUFC system with the HPNG anode shows a performance breakthrough as indicated by the maximum power density of 38.15 mW cm^-2 for 0.5 M urea, representing one of the best yet reported DUFCs. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of the scalable production of HPNG electrodes and is expected to be a great contribution to the development of the practical use of DUFCs in the near future for bifunctional energy conversion.

Recent progress in direct urea fuel cell

Direct urea fuel cell (DUFC) has attracted many researchers’ attention due to the use of wastewater, for example urine, which contains urea for the fuel. The main factor to improve the electrochemical oxidation performance of urea and further enhance the performances of DUFC is the use of a good anode catalyst. Non-noble metal catalyst, such as nickel, is reported to have a good catalytic activity in alkaline medium towards urea electro-oxidation. Besides optimizing the anode catalyst, the use of supporting electrode which has a large surface area as well as the use of H2O2 as an oxidant to replace O2 could help to improve the performances. The recent progress in anode catalysts for DUFC is overviewed in this article. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages as well as the factors that could help to escalate the performance of DUFC are discussed together with the challenges and future perspectives.

The synergistic effect of enhanced photocatalytic activity and photothermal effect of oxygen-deficient Ni/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite for rapid disinfection under near-infrared irradiation

The rational design of high antibacterial efficiency are urgently needed as the occurrence of drug-resistance issues. Hence, Ni/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite (Ni/rGO) with different amounts of oxygen vacancies were fabricated for efficient disinfection. The optimized Ni/rGO (A100) exhibited highly effective inactivation efficacy of 99.6% and 99.5% against Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis within 8 min near-infrared (NIR) irradiation through the synergistic effects of photothermal therapy and oxidative damage, which were much higher than single treatment. The A100 nanocomposite achieved an extraordinary photothermal conversion efficiency (35.78%) under the 808 nm irradiation for enhanced photothermal hyperthermia, thereby destroying the cell membrane and accelerating the GSH depletion. The radical scavenger experiment confirmed that •O₂^- and •OH play the chief role in photodisinfection reaction. Besides, A100 could exert significant damage on the ATP synthesis. The excellent photothermal performance and photocatalytic activity can be attributed to the appropriate oxygen vacancy density, which improves the absorption of NIR light and facilitates the separation of photogenerated electron-hole pairs. Besides, the higher NiO content of A100 contributed to improving the photocatalytic effect. Our work demonstrated a promising strategy for efficient water pollution purification caused by pathogenic bacteria.

3D ternary NixCo2-xP/C nanoflower/nanourchin arrays grown on HCNs: a highly efficient bi-functional electrocatalyst for boosting hydrogen production via the urea electro-oxidation reaction

Over the last few years, substantial efforts have been made to develop earth-abundant bi-functional catalysts for urea oxidation and energy-saving electrolytic hydrogen production due to their low cost and the potential to replace traditional noble-metal-based catalysts. Nevertheless, finding a straightforward and effective route to prepare efficient catalysts with unique structural features and optimal supports still is a big challenge. Among the various candidates, metal-organic framework (MOF)-derived materials show great advantages as new kinds of active non-precious catalysts. On the other hand, the controllable integration of MOFs and carbon-based nanomaterials leads to further enhancement in terms of the stability and electrical conductivity of catalysts. In this communication, we develop an MOF-carbon-based composite to synthesize a transition metal phosphide (TMP) catalyst for the electrocatalytic oxidation of urea. First, poly(pyrrole-co-aniline) (PPCA) hollow nanospheres were fabricated via the in situ emulsion polymerization of a mixture of aniline and pyrrole in the presence of Triton X-100. Then, the simple carbonization treatment of these PPCA hollow spheres led to the carbonized hollow carbon nanospheres (HCNs) with ultrahigh surface areas and uniform nano-morphologies. After that, bimetallic MM'/MOFs (M/M' = Ni, Co) were uniformly grown around the HCNs via a simple hydrothermal reaction (NiCo/MOF@HCNs). During the synthesis process, by adjusting Ni/Co ratios, the MOF morphology can be engineered so that by reducing the Ni/Co ratio, the flower-like structures change into urchin-like structures. Finally, this NiCo/MOF@HCNs precursor with different Ni/Co ratios during the in situ carbonization/phosphorization was chemically converted into Ni-Co mixed-metal phosphides (Ni_xCo_2-xP/C@HCNs). Finally, the electrocatalytic activity of the prepared catalysts was tested for the urea oxidation reaction (UOR) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER).

A Carbon-Cloth Anode Electroplated with Iron Nanostructure for Microbial Fuel Cell Operated with Real Wastewater

Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is an emerging method for extracting energy from wastewater. The power generated from such systems is low due to the sluggish electron transfer from the inside of the biocatalyst to the anode surface. One strategy for enhancing the electron transfer rate is anode modification. In this study, iron nanostructure was synthesized on a carbon cloth (CC) via a simple electroplating technique, and later investigated as a bio-anode in an MFC operated with real wastewater. The performance of an MFC with a nano-layer of iron was compared to that using bare CC. The results demonstrated that the open-circuit voltage increased from 600 mV in the case of bare CC to 800 mV in the case of the iron modified CC, showing a 33% increase in OCV. This increase in OCV can be credited to the decrease in the anode potential from 0.16 V vs. Ag/AgCl in the case of bare CC, to −0.01 V vs. Ag/AgCl in the case of the modified CC. The power output in the case of the modified electrode was 80 mW/m2—two times that of the MFC using the bare CC. Furthermore, the steady-state current in the case of the iron modified carbon cloth was two times that of the bare CC electrode. The improved performance was correlated to the enhanced electron transfer between the microorganisms and the iron-plated surface, along with the increase of the anode surface- as confirmed from the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and the surface morphology, respectively.

Recent Advances in the Electro-Oxidation of Urea for Direct Urea Fuel Cell and Urea Electrolysis

This paper provides an overview of recent advances in urea electro-oxidation. Urea sources are abundant from human urine, urea-containing wastewater, and industrial urea, thus becoming an attractive option as anodic fuel for the application in direct urea fuel cells (DUFCs). Besides, as a hydrogen-rich chemical fuel, urea can also be electrolyzed to produce hydrogen for energy storage in the near future. The exact mechanisms of urea decomposition are pretty different in alkaline or neutral mediums and are separately discussed in detail. More importantly, the development of anodic electro-catalysts is of great significance for improving the electrochemical performance of both DUFCs and urea electrolysis cells, which is systematically summarized in our review. Challenges and prospects on the future development of urea electro-oxidation are particularly proposed.