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Korkmaz E, Aerts S, Coesoij R, Bhatt CR, Velghe M, Colussi L, Land D, Petroulakis N, Spirito M, Bolte J. A comprehensive review of 5G NR RF-EMF exposure assessment technologies: fundamentals, advancements, challenges, niches, and implications. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 260:119524. [PMID: 38972338 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.119524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 06/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
This review offers a detailed examination of the current landscape of radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic field (EMF) assessment tools, ranging from spectrum analyzers and broadband field meters to area monitors and custom-built devices. The discussion encompasses both standardized and non-standardized measurement protocols, shedding light on the various methods employed in this domain. Furthermore, the review highlights the prevalent use of mobile apps for characterizing 5G NR radio network data. A growing need for low-cost measurement devices is observed, commonly referred to as "sensors" or "sensor nodes", that are capable of enduring diverse environmental conditions. These sensors play a crucial role in both microenvironmental surveys and individual exposures, enabling stationary, mobile, and personal exposure assessments based on body-worn sensors, across wider geographical areas. This review revealed a notable need for cost-effective and long-lasting sensors, whether for individual exposure assessments, mobile (vehicle-integrated) measurements, or incorporation into distributed sensor networks. However, there is a lack of comprehensive information on existing custom-developed RF-EMF measurement tools, especially in terms of measuring uncertainty. Additionally, there is a need for real-time, fast-sampling solutions to understand the highly irregular temporal variations EMF distribution in next-generation networks. Given the diversity of tools and methods, a comprehensive comparison is crucial to determine the necessary statistical tools for aggregating the available measurement data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erdal Korkmaz
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - Sam Aerts
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Richard Coesoij
- Delft University of Technology, Department of Microelectronics, 2628 CN, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, VIC 3085, Yallambie, Australia
| | - Maarten Velghe
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, 3720 BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Loek Colussi
- Dutch Authority for Digital Infrastructure, 9700 AL, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Derek Land
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Nikolaos Petroulakis
- Institute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, 70013, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Marco Spirito
- Delft University of Technology, Department of Microelectronics, 2628 CN, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - John Bolte
- The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Research Group Smart Sensor Systems, 2627 AL, Delft, The Netherlands; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, 3720 BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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2
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Ahsan Ashraf M, Celik T. Evaluating radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure in confined spaces: a systematic review of recent studies and future directions. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2024; 200:598-616. [PMID: 38491820 PMCID: PMC11033578 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncae045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/10/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
This study reviews recent research on Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field (RF-EMF) exposure in confined environments, focusing on methodologies and parameters. Studies typically evaluate RF-EMF exposure using an electric field and specific absorption rate but fail to consider temperature rise in the tissues in confined environments. The study highlights the investigation of RF-EMF exposure in subterranean environments such as subways, tunnels and mines. Future research should evaluate the exposure of communication devices in such environments, considering the surrounding environment. Such studies will aid in understanding the risks and developing effective mitigation strategies to protect workers and the general public.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Ahsan Ashraf
- Sibanye-Stillwater Digital Mining Laboratory (DigiMine), University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
| | - Turgay Celik
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
- Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Agder, 4630 Kristiansand, Norway
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3
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Escobar I, Vandenbosch GAE, Arribas E. Personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: A comparative analysis of international, national, and regional guidelines. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 246:118124. [PMID: 38199478 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
A worldwide overview and analysis for the existing limits of human exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) is given in this paper. These reference levels have been established by different national and even regional governments, which can be based on the guidelines provided by the recommendations of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the International Committee on Electromagnetic Safety of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and even in the United States of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), as well as, are based on the so-called precautionary principle. Explicit reference is made to the exposure limits adopted in countries or regions, such as Canada, Italy, Poland, Switzerland, China, Russia, France, and regions of Belgium (Brussels, Flanders, Wallonia), where the limits are much lower than the international standards. The limits are compared to a selected set of in-situ measurements. This clearly shows that the measured values are typically very small compared to the international standards but could be somewhat higher compared to the reduced limits. Based on this observation and the reasonable assumption that the sensitivity of people to Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) is the same everywhere (whole-body), we propose the idea to establish a worldwide reference limit for the general public, thus applicable in all countries, if the ICNIRP considers it appropriate. Research must continue to generate measurement data that demonstrate the levels of exposure to which we are really exposed, and with this, provide arguments to the organizations that established the guidelines, especially the ICNIRP, to evaluate whether the current limits are too much. High and can be modified when considered pertinent. To the best of our knowledge, at no time has the reference level for the general public been exceeded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Polytechnic School of Cuenca, University Campus s/n, 16071, Cuenca, Spain; MORFEO Research Group, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain; ESAT-WaveCoRE, Dep. of Electrical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, Box 2444, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Isabel Escobar
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España s/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain; MORFEO Research Group, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
| | - Guy A E Vandenbosch
- ESAT-WaveCoRE, Dep. of Electrical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, Box 2444, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Enrique Arribas
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España s/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain; MORFEO Research Group, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain.
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4
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Loizeau N, Zahner M, Schindler J, Stephan C, Fröhlich J, Gugler M, Ziegler T, Röösli M. Comparison of ambient radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) levels in outdoor areas and public transport in Switzerland in 2014 and 2021. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 237:116921. [PMID: 37598840 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Mobile communication technology has evolved rapidly over the last ten years with a drastic increase in wireless data traffic and the deployment of new telecommunication technologies. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ambient radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) levels and temporal changes in various microenvironments in Switzerland in 2014 and 2021. We measured the ambient RF-EMF levels in V/m in the same 49 outdoor areas and in public transport in 2014 and 2021 using portable RF-EMF exposure meters carried in a backpack. The areas were selected to represent some typical types of microenvironments (e.g. urban city centres, suburban and rural areas). We calculated the summary statistics (mean, percentiles) in mW/m2 and converted back to V/m for each microenvironment. We evaluated the distribution and the variability of the ambient RF-EMF levels per microenvironment types in 2021. Finally, we compared the ambient RF-EMF mean levels in 2014 and 2021 using multilevel regression modelling. In outdoor areas, the average ambient RF-EMF mean levels per microenvironment in 2021 ranged from 0.19 V/m in rural areas to 0.43 V/m in industrial areas (overall mean: 0.27 V/m). In public transports, the mean levels were 0.27 V/m in buses, 0.33 V/m in trains and 0.36 V/m in trams. In 2021, mean levels across all outdoor areas were -0.022 V/m lower (95% confidence interval: -0.072, 0.030) than in 2014. Results from our comprehensive measurement study across Switzerland suggest that RF-EMF levels in public places have not significantly changed between 2014 and 2021 despite an 18-fold increase in mobile data transmission during that period. The absence of temporal changes may be owed to the shift to newer mobile communication technologies, which are more efficient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Loizeau
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, 4001, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Johannes Schindler
- Grolimund + Partner AG Environmental Engineering, 3097, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christa Stephan
- Grolimund + Partner AG Environmental Engineering, 3097, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Toni Ziegler
- Grolimund + Partner AG Environmental Engineering, 3097, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123, Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, 4001, Basel, Switzerland.
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5
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Turuban M, Kromhout H, Vila J, Vallbona-Vistós M, Baldi I, Turner MC. Personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in various occupations in Spain and France. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 180:108156. [PMID: 37722304 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A preliminary job-exposure matrix (JEM) for radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) was created based on self-reported occupational information from a multi-country population-based study of approximately 10,000 participants combined with available measurement data compiled in a source-exposure matrix (spot measurements). In order to address the limited personal occupational RF-EMF measurement data available in the literature, we performed a measurement campaign among workers in various occupations in Spain and France. METHODS Personal full-shift measurements were conducted using RadMan 2XT™ (Narda) devices. A worker diary was used to capture information on occupational and background sources of RF exposure during the shift. Inclusion of occupations to be measured was initially based on exposure prevalence and level information in the preliminary JEM and expert judgment. RESULTS Personal full-shift measurements were conducted among 333 workers representing 46 ISCO88 occupations. Exposure to electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields was infrequent with >99% of measurements below the detection limit of the device (≥1% of the 1998 ICNIRP standards). A total of 50.2% and 77.2% of workers were ever exposed to E and H fields respectively (having at least one recorded 1-second measurement above the detection limit). Workers in elementary occupations, technicians and associate professionals, plant and machine operators and assemblers had somewhat greater numbers of measurements above the detection limit, higher maximum values and longer exposure durations. A small proportion of measurements were ≥100% of the standards, though these exceedances were brief (generally a few seconds in duration). Female workers and workers reporting use of any RF-EMF emitting source were more likely to have a measured exposure to E and H fields. CONCLUSION We conducted personal RF-EMF measurements among workers in various occupations in Spain and France. Overall, RF-EMF exposure ≥1 % ICNIRP was infrequent, despite some intermittent exposures ≥100% observed among workers in some occupations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Turuban
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Hans Kromhout
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Javier Vila
- Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Office of Radiation Protection and Environmental Monitoring, Wexford, Ireland
| | | | - Isabelle Baldi
- INSERM UMR 1219 Epicene Team, Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, Bordeaux, France; Service Santé Travail Environnement, CHU de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Michelle C Turner
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain.
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6
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Paniagua-Sánchez JM, García-Cobos FJ, Rufo-Pérez M, Jiménez-Barco A. Large-area mobile measurement of outdoor exposure to radio frequencies. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 877:162852. [PMID: 36931516 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
A rapid outdoor sampling technique was tested to measure human exposure to radio frequencies in a city of 96,000 inhabitants. The technique consisted of taking measurements with a personal exposure meter inside a moving vehicle. Tests were carried out to quantify the alteration produced by the vehicle's structure and obtain correction factors in order to minimize this alteration. Data were collected at 3065 points where signals in the FM radio and mobile phone wavebands were detected. The coefficients of exposure to sources with multiple frequencies due to thermal effects were calculated from the measured values of the electric field. Kriging was used to generate maps of these coefficients, and these maps were then merged with aerial photographs of the city to readily identify the areas with greater or lesser exposure. The results indicated that the vehicle increased the FM broadcasting radiation readings by a factor of 1.66, but attenuated those of mobile telephony by factors of 0.54-0.66. The mean electric field levels detected throughout the city were 0.231, 0.057, 0.140, 0.124, and 0.110 V/m for the frequency bands FM, LTE 800 (DL), GSM + UMTS 900(DL), GSM 1800(DL), and UMTS 2100(DL), respectively. The mean coefficient of exposure to sources with multiple frequencies was 2.05 × 10-4, and the maximum was 9.81 × 10-3. It can be concluded from the study that it is possible to assess radio frequency exposure using this method, and that the technique is scalable to different sized cities. It also allows measurement at different times so as to analyse the temporal variation of radio frequency levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús M Paniagua-Sánchez
- Department Applied Physics, Polytechnic School, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003 Cáceres, Spain.
| | - Francisco J García-Cobos
- Polytechnic School, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
| | - Montaña Rufo-Pérez
- Department Applied Physics, Polytechnic School, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
| | - Antonio Jiménez-Barco
- Department Applied Physics, Polytechnic School, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
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7
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Escobar I, Vandenbosch GAE, Vargas F, Caceres-Monllor DA, Arribas E. Measurement studies of personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: A systematic review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 218:114979. [PMID: 36460078 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The last 25 years have seen an increase in the number of radiofrequency sources with the global adoption of smartphones as primary connectivity devices. The objective of this work was to review and evaluate the measured studies of personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-RMF) and meet the basic quality criteria eligible for inclusion in this Review, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, following the eligibility criteria of the PECO (Population, Exposure, Comparator, and Outcome) methodology, and the instrument for critical reading Critical Appraisal Skills Programme Español (CASPe). We systematically reviewed the works published between January 1, 1998, and December 31, 2021, yielding 56 publications. Of the different types of studies in which personal exposure to RF-EMF has been measured with two measurement methodologies can be highlighted: Personal measurements with volunteers and Personal measurements with a trained researcher (touring a specific area, one or several microenvironments, an entire city, walking or in some means of transport). Personal exposimeters were used in 83% of the studies. The lowest mean was measured in Egypt with a value of 0.00100 μW/m2 (1.00 nW/m2) in 2007 and the highest mean was measured in Belgium with a value of 285000 μW/m2 (0.285 W/m2) in 2019. The results of our study confirm that RF-EMF exposure levels are well below the maximum levels established by the ICNIRP guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Isabel Escobar
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Guy A E Vandenbosch
- ESAT-WaveCoRE, Dep. of Electrical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, Box 2444, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | | | - Enrique Arribas
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain.
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8
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García-Cobos FJ, Paniagua-Sánchez JM, Gordillo-Guerrero A, Marabel-Calderón C, Rufo-Pérez M, Jiménez-Barco A. Personal exposimeter coupled to a drone as a system for measuring environmental electromagnetic fields. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 216:114483. [PMID: 36209790 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Personal exposimeters are currently used in studies assessing human exposure to electromagnetic fields. These devices are usually carried by an individual, but vehicles such as bicycle or car are also used. The aim of the present study was to propose a personal exposimeter attached to a drone to perform environmental radio-frequency measurements. Trials were carried out to determine whether: (i) the wireless communication between the remote controller and the drone affects the downlink mobile telephony bands by a cross-talk effect, and (ii) the structure of the drone alters the measurements of the exposimeter compared to when the meter is on a tripod. To apply this system to a real scenario, a 3D representation of the electric field in a building was obtained, and the attenuation due to the building of radiation from outside was estimated. Measurements of the electromagnetic field with this system will make it possible to monitor without risk the emissions of antennas in their close vicinity, and to validate propagation models experimentally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J García-Cobos
- School of Technology, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Jesús M Paniagua-Sánchez
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Technology, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Caceres, Spain.
| | - Antonio Gordillo-Guerrero
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Automatics, School of Technology, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Caceres, Spain
| | | | - Montaña Rufo-Pérez
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Technology, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Caceres, Spain
| | - Antonio Jiménez-Barco
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Technology, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Caceres, Spain
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9
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López I, Rivera M, Félix N, Maestú C. It is mandatory to review environmental radiofrequency electromagnetic field measurement protocols and exposure regulations: An opinion article. Front Public Health 2022; 10:992645. [PMID: 36353271 PMCID: PMC9639819 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.992645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Isabel López
- Departamento de Fotónica y Bioingeniería (TFB), Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain,Laboratorio de Bioelectromagnetismo, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marco Rivera
- Laboratorio de Bioelectromagnetismo, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Nazario Félix
- Laboratorio de Bioelectromagnetismo, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain,Departamento de Arquitectura y Tecnología de Sistemas Informáticos (DATSI), Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Informáticos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ceferino Maestú
- Departamento de Fotónica y Bioingeniería (TFB), Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain,Laboratorio de Bioelectromagnetismo, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain,CIBER–BBN Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, Madrid, Spain,*Correspondence: Ceferino Maestú
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10
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Schmutz C, Bürgler A, Ashta N, Soenksen J, Bou Karim Y, Shen C, Smith RB, Jenkins RH, Mireku MO, Mutz J, Maes MJA, Hirst R, Chang I, Fleming C, Mussa A, Kesary D, Addison D, Maslanyj M, Toledano MB, Röösli M, Eeftens M. Personal radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure of adolescents in the Greater London area in the SCAMP cohort and the association with restrictions on permitted use of mobile communication technologies at school and at home. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 212:113252. [PMID: 35421393 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Personal measurements of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) have been used in several studies to characterise personal exposure in daily life, but such data are limitedly available for adolescents, and not yet for the United Kingdom (UK). In this study, we aimed to characterise personal exposure to RF-EMF in adolescents and to study the association between exposure and rules applied at school and at home to restrict wireless communication use, likely implemented to reduce other effects of mobile technology (e.g. distraction). We measured exposure to RF-EMF for 16 common frequency bands (87.5 MHz-3.5 GHz), using portable measurement devices (ExpoM-RF), in a subsample of adolescents participating in the cohort Study of Cognition, Adolescents and Mobile Phones (SCAMP) from Greater London (UK) (n = 188). School and home rules were assessed by questionnaire and concerned the school's availability of WiFi and mobile phone policy, and parental restrictions on permitted mobile phone use. Adolescents recorded their activities in real time using a diary app on a study smartphone, while characterizing their personal RF-EMF exposure in daily life, during different activities and times of the day. Data analysis was done for 148 adolescents from 29 schools who recorded RF-EMF data for a median duration of 47 h. The majority (74%) of adolescents spent part of their time at school during the measurement period. Median total RF-EMF exposure was 40 μW/m2 at home, 94 μW/m2 at school, and 100 μW/m2 overall. In general, restrictions at school or at home made little difference for adolescents' measured exposure to RF-EMF, except for uplink exposure from mobile phones while at school, which was found to be significantly lower for adolescents attending schools not permitting phone use at all, compared to adolescents attending schools allowing mobile phone use during breaks. This difference was not statistically significant for total personal exposure. Total exposure to RF-EMF in adolescents living in Greater London tended to be higher compared to exposure levels reported in other European countries. This study suggests that school policies and parental restrictions are not associated with a lower RF-EMF exposure in adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Schmutz
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Bürgler
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Narain Ashta
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jana Soenksen
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Yasmin Bou Karim
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Units in Environmental Exposures and Health & Chemical and Radiation Threats and Hazards, in partnership with UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Chen Shen
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Units in Environmental Exposures and Health & Chemical and Radiation Threats and Hazards, in partnership with UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel B Smith
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Units in Environmental Exposures and Health & Chemical and Radiation Threats and Hazards, in partnership with UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; Mohn Centre for Children's Health and Wellbeing, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Rosemary H Jenkins
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Units in Environmental Exposures and Health & Chemical and Radiation Threats and Hazards, in partnership with UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; Public Health Policy Evaluation Unit, Department of Primary Care and Public Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, Charing Cross Campus, The Reynolds Building, St Dunstan's Road, London, W6 8RP, United Kingdom
| | - Michael O Mireku
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; University of Lincoln, School of Psychology, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Julian Mutz
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Units in Environmental Exposures and Health & Chemical and Radiation Threats and Hazards, in partnership with UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, United Kingdom
| | - Mikaël J A Maes
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; Department of Geography, University College London, Pearson Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom; Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Rosi Hirst
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Irene Chang
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte Fleming
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Aamirah Mussa
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Daphna Kesary
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Darren Addison
- UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Centre for Chemical, Radiation and Environmental Hazards, Harwell Campus, Oxon, OX11 0RQ, United Kingdom
| | - Myron Maslanyj
- UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Centre for Chemical, Radiation and Environmental Hazards, Harwell Campus, Oxon, OX11 0RQ, United Kingdom
| | - Mireille B Toledano
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Units in Environmental Exposures and Health & Chemical and Radiation Threats and Hazards, in partnership with UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom; Mohn Centre for Children's Health and Wellbeing, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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11
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Najera A, Ramis R, Las-Heras Andes F, Garcia-Pardo C, Alonso JI, Gonzalez-Rubio J, Hernando A, Martinez JL, Marcos FV. Comments on "What is the radiation before 5G? A correlation study between measurements in situ and in real time and epidemiological indicators in Vallecas, Madrid". ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 212:113314. [PMID: 35500852 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Najera
- Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine of Albacete, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain; Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
| | - Rebeca Ramis
- Chronic Diseases Department, National Epidemiology Centre, Carlos III Health Institute, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Fernando Las-Heras Andes
- Signal Theory and Communications (TSC-UNIOVI), Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.
| | | | - Jose I Alonso
- Dpto. Señales, Sistemas y Radiocomunicaciones, ETSI Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Jesus Gonzalez-Rubio
- Department of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine of Albacete, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain; Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CRIB), University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
| | - Antonio Hernando
- Instituto de Magnetismo Aplicado, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain; IMDEA, Nanociencia, Universidad Antonio de Nebrija, Madrid and Donosti International Physics Center, San Sebastián, Spain.
| | | | - Francisco Vargas Marcos
- Department: General Sub-Directorate of Environmental Health and Occupational Health, General Directorate of Public Health, Ministry of Health, Madrid, Spain.
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12
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Šuka D, Simić-Pejović M, Pejović P. ON THE ASSESSMENT OF EXPOSURE FROM LTE 800-MHZ DOWNLINK FREQUENCY BAND THROUGH THE TIME-AVERAGED AND INTEGRAL-BASED MEASURE. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2022; 198:454-466. [PMID: 35695689 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncac075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Exposure assessment should consider the stochastic nature of the emitted signals. Therefore, the long-term temporal variability of E-field strength, obtained by band selective measurements for long-term evolution in a real mobile network environment, is considered in this paper. Intensive measurements were carried out 24 h a day for 2 weeks at an indoor location in the urban area. The repeatability of the measurement results was achieved through descriptive statistics of the 24-h instantaneous, time-averaged and integral-based values. More specifically, we addressed the uncertainties on the temporal variability of the instantaneous exposure levels and the effects of duration of averaging and time-integrating on it. To this aim, a huge amount of signal levels (120 960 samples) was collected during the measurement campaign by considering three operators in the 800 MHz downlink band. Results have shown how some factors, such as the time interval in which the measurements are taken, can significantly affect the measurement results and their repeatability. Furthermore, in some cases, such effects become comparable to, or even larger than typical measurement uncertainty. By applying both the 24-h time-averaged and integral-based measure, the variability of daily exposure levels could be reduced to values lower than the measurement uncertainty (i.e. lower than ± 20% of the mean week value obtained with either measure). Based on such results, an indicator depending on the exposure duration should better quantify the far-field exposure in each location.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darko Šuka
- University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, East Sarajevo, 71123 Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | | | - Predrag Pejović
- University of Belgrade, School of Electrical Engineering, Belgrade, 11000 Serbia
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13
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Instruments to measure environmental and personal radiofrequency-electromagnetic field exposures: an update. Phys Eng Sci Med 2022; 45:687-704. [PMID: 35737222 PMCID: PMC9448713 DOI: 10.1007/s13246-022-01146-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Modern human populations are exposed to anthropogenic sources of radiofrequency-electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs), primarily to telecommunication and broadcasting technologies. As a result, ongoing concerns from some members of the public have arisen regarding potential health effects following RF-EMF exposures. In order to monitor human RF-EMF exposures and investigate potential health effects, an objective assessment of RF-EMF exposures is necessary. Accurate dosimetry is essential for any investigation of potential associations between RF-EMF exposure and health effects in human populations. This review updates state-of-the-art knowledge of currently available RF-EMF exposure assessment tools applicable in human epidemiological studies. These tools cater for assessing RF-EMF exposures in human environments; through mobile phone-based tools or other standalone tools. RF-EMF exposure assessment has been significantly improved through the application of some of these tools in recent years.
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14
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Aerts S, Vermeeren G, Van den Bossche M, Aminzadeh R, Verloock L, Thielens A, Leroux P, Bergs J, Braem B, Philippron A, Martens L, Joseph W. Lessons Learned from a Distributed RF-EMF Sensor Network. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22051715. [PMID: 35270862 PMCID: PMC8914968 DOI: 10.3390/s22051715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In an increasingly wireless world, spatiotemporal monitoring of the exposure to environmental radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF) is crucial to appease public uncertainty and anxiety about RF-EMF. However, although the advent of smart city infrastructures allows for dense networks of distributed sensors, the costs of accurate RF sensors remain high, and dedicated RF monitoring networks remain rare. This paper describes a comprehensive study comprising the design of a low-cost RF-EMF sensor node capable of monitoring four frequency bands used by wireless telecommunications with an unparalleled temporal resolution, its application in a small-scale distributed sensor network consisting of both fixed (on building façades) and mobile sensor nodes (on postal vans), and the subsequent analysis of over a year of data between January 2019 and May 2020, during which slightly less than 10 million samples were collected. From the fixed nodes’ results, the potential errors were determined that are induced when sampling at lower speeds (e.g., one sample per 15 min) and measuring for shorter periods of time (e.g., a few weeks), as well as an adequate resolution (30 min) for diurnal and weekly temporal profiles which sufficiently preserves short-term variations. Furthermore, based on the correlation between the sensors, an adequate density of 100 sensor nodes per km2 was deduced for future networks. Finally, the mobile sensor nodes were used to identify potential RF-EMF exposure hotspots in a previously unattainable area of more than 60 km2. In summary, through the analysis of a small number of RF-EMF sensor nodes (both fixed and mobile) in an urban area, this study offers invaluable insights applicable to future designs and deployments of distributed RF-EMF sensor networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Aerts
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Günter Vermeeren
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Matthias Van den Bossche
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Reza Aminzadeh
- Unitron NV-Unitron Connect, Frankrijklaan 27, 8970 Poperinge, Belgium;
| | - Leen Verloock
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Arno Thielens
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Philip Leroux
- IDLab, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium;
| | - Johan Bergs
- IDLab, University of Antwerp/imec, Sint-Pietersvliet 7, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium; (J.B.); (B.B.)
| | - Bart Braem
- IDLab, University of Antwerp/imec, Sint-Pietersvliet 7, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium; (J.B.); (B.B.)
| | | | - Luc Martens
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
| | - Wout Joseph
- WAVES, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (G.V.); (M.V.d.B.); (L.V.); (A.T.); (L.M.); (W.J.)
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15
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Rivera González MX, Félix González N, López I, Ochoa Zambrano JS, Miranda Martínez A, Maestú Unturbe C. Compact Exposimeter Device for the Characterization and Recording of Electromagnetic Fields from 78 MHz to 6 GHz with Several Narrow Bands (300 kHz). SENSORS 2021; 21:s21217395. [PMID: 34770707 PMCID: PMC8588337 DOI: 10.3390/s21217395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
A novel compact device with spectrum analyzer characteristics has been designed, which allows the measuring of the maximum power received in multiple narrow frequency bands of 300 kHz, recording the entire spectrum from 78 MHz to 6 GHz; the device is capable of measuring the entire communications spectrum and detecting multiple sources of electromagnetic fields using the same communications band. The proposed device permits the evaluation of the cross-talk effect that, in conventional exposimeters, generates a mistake estimation of electromagnetic fields. The device was calibrated in an anechoic chamber for far-fields and was validated against a portable spectrum analyzer in a residential area. A strong correlation between the two devices with a confidence higher than 95% was obtained; indicating that the device could be considered as an important tool for electromagnetic field studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Xavier Rivera González
- Center for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), 28040 Madrid, Spain; (N.F.G.); (I.L.); (A.M.M.); (C.M.U.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Nazario Félix González
- Center for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), 28040 Madrid, Spain; (N.F.G.); (I.L.); (A.M.M.); (C.M.U.)
| | - Isabel López
- Center for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), 28040 Madrid, Spain; (N.F.G.); (I.L.); (A.M.M.); (C.M.U.)
| | | | - Andrés Miranda Martínez
- Center for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), 28040 Madrid, Spain; (N.F.G.); (I.L.); (A.M.M.); (C.M.U.)
| | - Ceferino Maestú Unturbe
- Center for Biomedical Technology (CTB), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), 28040 Madrid, Spain; (N.F.G.); (I.L.); (A.M.M.); (C.M.U.)
- Networking Research Center of Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), 28040 Madrid, Spain
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16
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Huss A, Dongus S, Aminzadeh R, Thielens A, van den Bossche M, Van Torre P, de Seze R, Cardis E, Eeftens M, Joseph W, Vermeulen R, Röösli M. Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: Comparison of exposimeters with a novel body-worn distributed meter. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 156:106711. [PMID: 34153890 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) is often measured with personal exposimeters, but the accuracy of measurements can be hampered as carrying the devices on-body may result in body shielding. Further, the compact design may compromise the frequency selectivity of the sensor. The aim of this study was to compare measurements obtained using a multi-band body-worn distributed-exposimeter (BWDM) with two commercially available personal exposimeters (ExpoM-RF and EmeSpy 200) under real-life conditions. METHODS The BWDM measured power density in 10 frequency bands (800, 900, 1800, 2100, 2600 MHz, DECT 1900 MHz, WiFi 2.4 GHz; with separate uplink/downlink bands for 900, 1800 and 2100 MHz); using 20 separate antennas integrated in a vest and placed on diametrically opposite locations on the body, to minimize body-shielding. RF-EMF exposure data were collected from several microenvironments (e.g. shopping areas, train stations, outdoor rural/ urban residential environments, etc.) by walking around pre-defined areas/routes in Belgium, Spain, France, the Netherlands and Switzerland. Measurements were taken every 1-4 s with the BWDM in parallel with an ExpoM-RF and an EmeSpy 200 exposimeter. We calculated medians and interquartile ranges (IQRs) and compared difference, ratios and correlations of geometric mean RF-EMF exposure levels per microenvironment as measured with the exposimeters and the BWDM. RESULTS Across 267 microenvironments, medians and IQR of total BWDM measured RF-EMF exposure was 0.13 (0.05-0.33) mW/m2. Difference: IQR of exposimeters minus BWDM exposure levels was -0.011 (-0.049 to 0.0095) mW/m2 for the ExpoM-RF and -0.056 (-0.14 to -0.017) for the EmeSpy 200; ratios (exposimeter/BWDM) of total exposure had an IQR of 0.79 (0.55-1.1) for the ExpoM-RF and 0.29 (0.22-0.38) for the EmeSpy 200. Spearman correlations were 0.93 for the ExpoM-RF vs the BWDM and 0.96 for the EmeSpy 200 vs the BWDM. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Results indicate that exposimeters worn on-body provide somewhat lower total RF-EMF exposure as compared to measurements conducted with the BWDM, in line with effects from body shielding. Ranking of exposure levels of microenvironments showed high correspondence between the different device types. Our results are informative for the interpretation of existing epidemiological research results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.
| | - Stefan Dongus
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Reza Aminzadeh
- Department of Information Technology, WAVES, Ghent University / IMEC, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology, WAVES, Ghent University / IMEC, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Patrick Van Torre
- Department of Information Technology, IDLab, Ghent University / IMEC, Ghent, Belgium
| | - René de Seze
- TEAM/PERITOX UMR I-01, National Institute for Industrial Environment and Risks, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
| | - Elisabeth Cardis
- Barcelona Institute of Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain; University Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiologia y Salud Pública, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, WAVES, Ghent University / IMEC, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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17
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Velghe M, Aerts S, Martens L, Joseph W, Thielens A. Protocol for personal RF-EMF exposure measurement studies in 5th generation telecommunication networks. Environ Health 2021; 20:36. [PMID: 33794922 PMCID: PMC8017841 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-021-00719-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The general population is exposed to Radio-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMFs) used by telecommunication networks. Previous studies developed methods to assess this exposure. These methods will be inadequate to accurately assess exposure in 5G technologies or other wireless technologies using adaptive antennas. This is due to the fact that 5G NR (new radio) base stations will focus actively on connected users, resulting in a high spatio-temporal variations in the RF-EMFs. This increases the measurement uncertainty in personal measurements of RF-EMF exposure. Furthermore, a user's exposure from base stations will be dependent on the amount of data usage, adding a new component to the auto-induced exposure, which is often omitted in current studies. GOALS The objective of this paper is to develop a general study protocol for future personal RF-EMF exposure research adapted to 5G technologies. This protocol will include the assessment of auto-induced exposure of both a user's own devices and the networks' base stations. METHOD This study draws from lessons learned from previous RF-EMF exposure research and current knowledge on 5G technologies, including studies simulating 5G NR base stations and measurements around 5G NR test sites. RESULTS To account for auto-induced exposure, an activity-based approach is introduced. In survey studies, an RF-EMF sensor is fixed on the participants' mobile device(s). Based on the measured power density, GPS data and movement and proximity sensors, different activities can be clustered and the exposure during each activity is evaluated. In microenvironmental measurements, a trained researcher performs measurements in predefined microenvironments with a mobile device equipped with the RF-EMF sensor. The mobile device is programmed to repeat a sequence of data transmission scenarios (different amounts of uplink and downlink data transmissions). Based on simulations, the amount of exposure induced in the body when the user device is at a certain location relative to the body, can be evaluated. CONCLUSION Our protocol addresses the main challenges to personal exposure measurement introduced by 5G NR. A systematic method to evaluate a user's auto-induced exposure is introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Velghe
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University / IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 126, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Sam Aerts
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University / IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 126, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University / IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 126, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University / IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 126, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University / IMEC, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 126, Ghent, Belgium
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18
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Gonzalez-Rubio J, Escobar I, Suarez Rodriguez CDP, Arribas E. Personal Exposure Assessment to Wi-Fi Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields in Mexican Microenvironments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18041857. [PMID: 33673014 PMCID: PMC7918906 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18041857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) has substantially increased, and most studies about RF-EMF with volunteers have been developed in Europe. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study carried out in Mexico with personal exposimeters. The main objective was to measure personal exposure to RF-EMF from Wireless Fidelity or wireless Internet connection (Wi-Fi) frequency bands in Tamazunchale, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, to compare results with maximum levels permitted by international recommendations and to find if there are differences in the microenvironments subject to measurements. The study was conducted with 63 volunteers in different microenvironments: home, workplace, outside, schools, travel, and shopping. The mean minimum values registered were 146.5 μW/m2 in travel from the Wi-Fi 2G band and 116.8 μW/m2 at home from the Wi-Fi 5G band, and the maximum values registered were 499.7 μW/m2 and 264.9 μW/m2 at the workplace for the Wi-Fi 2G band and the Wi-Fi 5G band, respectively. In addition, by time period and type of day, minimum values were registered at nighttime, these values being 129.4 μW/m2 and 93.9 μW/m2, and maximum values were registered in the daytime, these values being 303.1 μW/m2 and 168.3 μW/m2 for the Wi-Fi 2G and Wi-Fi 5G bands, respectively. In no case, values exceeded limits established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Of the study participants (n = 63), a subgroup (n = 35) answered a survey on risk perception. According to these results, the Tamazunchale (Mexico) population is worried about this situation in comparison with several European cities; however, the risk perception changes when they are informed about the results for the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (I.E.); (E.A.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Jesus Gonzalez-Rubio
- Medical Science Department, School of Medicine, University of Castilla-La Mancha, C/Almansa 14, 02071 Albacete, Spain;
| | - Isabel Escobar
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (I.E.); (E.A.)
| | - Carmen del Pilar Suarez Rodriguez
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Autonomous University of San Luis Potosi, Academic Coordination of the Huasteca South Region, Tamazunchale, San Luis Potosi 79960, Mexico;
| | - Enrique Arribas
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (I.E.); (E.A.)
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19
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Regrain C, Caudeville J, de Seze R, Guedda M, Chobineh A, de Doncker P, Petrillo L, Chiaramello E, Parazzini M, Joseph W, Aerts S, Huss A, Wiart J. Design of an Integrated Platform for Mapping Residential Exposure to Rf-Emf Sources. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17155339. [PMID: 32722208 PMCID: PMC7432236 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17155339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Nowadays, information and communication technologies (mobile phones, connected objects) strongly occupy our daily life. The increasing use of these technologies and the complexity of network infrastructures raise issues about radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (Rf-Emf) exposure. Most previous studies have assessed individual exposure to Rf-Emf, and the next level is to assess populational exposure. In our study, we designed a statistical tool for Rf-Emf populational exposure assessment and mapping. This tool integrates geographic databases and surrogate models to characterize spatiotemporal exposure from outdoor sources, indoor sources, and mobile phones. A case study was conducted on a 100 × 100 m grid covering the 14th district of Paris to illustrate the functionalities of the tool. Whole-body specific absorption rate (SAR) values are 2.7 times higher than those for the whole brain. The mapping of whole-body and whole-brain SAR values shows a dichotomy between built-up and non-built-up areas, with the former displaying higher values. Maximum SAR values do not exceed 3.5 and 3.9 mW/kg for the whole body and the whole brain, respectively, thus they are significantly below International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) recommendations. Indoor sources are the main contributor to populational exposure, followed by outdoor sources and mobile phones, which generally represents less than 1% of total exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corentin Regrain
- Institut National de l’Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Parc, 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France; (J.C.); (R.d.S.)
- LAMFA, UMR CNRS 7352, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 33 rue Saint-Leu, 80039 Amiens, France;
- PériTox, UMR_I 01, CURS, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80025 Amiens, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33344556252
| | - Julien Caudeville
- Institut National de l’Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Parc, 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France; (J.C.); (R.d.S.)
- PériTox, UMR_I 01, CURS, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80025 Amiens, France
| | - René de Seze
- Institut National de l’Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Parc, 60550 Verneuil en Halatte, France; (J.C.); (R.d.S.)
- PériTox, UMR_I 01, CURS, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80025 Amiens, France
| | - Mohammed Guedda
- LAMFA, UMR CNRS 7352, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 33 rue Saint-Leu, 80039 Amiens, France;
| | - Amirreza Chobineh
- LTCI Telecom Paris, Chaire C2m, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France; (A.C.); (J.W.)
| | - Philippe de Doncker
- OPERA—Wireless Communications Group, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (P.d.D.); (L.P.)
| | - Luca Petrillo
- OPERA—Wireless Communications Group, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (P.d.D.); (L.P.)
| | - Emma Chiaramello
- CNR IEIIT—Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell’Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.C.); (M.P.)
| | - Marta Parazzini
- CNR IEIIT—Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell’Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.C.); (M.P.)
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (W.J.); (S.A.)
| | - Sam Aerts
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (W.J.); (S.A.)
| | - Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, 3508 Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Joe Wiart
- LTCI Telecom Paris, Chaire C2m, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France; (A.C.); (J.W.)
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20
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Paniagua JM, Rufo M, Jiménez A, Antolín A. Dimensionless coefficients for assessing human exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic fields indoors and outdoors in urban areas. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 183:109188. [PMID: 32032813 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The main objective of this work was to evaluate human exposure to electromagnetic fields in a city of about one hundred thousand inhabitants, both inside and outside dwellings, using exposure quotients. To this end, a personal exposure meter was used, collecting data in different frequency bands, including radio and television broadcasting, mobile telephony, cordless telephones, and wireless communication networks. The indoor measurements were made with the exposure meter in a static position. Those outdoor were made by walking around the building with the exposure meter held by the operator. The median electric field was 0.200 V/m outdoors and 0.102 V/m indoors. The median of the ICNIRP exposure quotients for multiple-frequency sources was 25 10-6 outside and 16 10-6 inside. The proximity of the operator's body caused the readings of the electric field in the FM band to be overestimated by a factor of 1.35, and in the mobile telephony bands by factors from 0.76 to 1.02. The standard deviation of the measurements repeated inside a dwelling over five days was of the order of the exposure meter's standard uncertainty of calibration, but the spatial dispersion at the scale of a dwelling and of the city was much greater. The two main contributors to the exposure were FM radio followed by the "downlink" mobile telephony bands. Inside the dwellings, the DECT and WIFI bands contributed less. Exposure quotients are dimensionless parameters that characterize exposure, and reflect the relative weight of each service to that exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús M Paniagua
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Technology, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Caceres, Spain.
| | - Montaña Rufo
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Technology, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Caceres, Spain
| | - Antonio Jiménez
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Technology, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Caceres, Spain
| | - Alicia Antolín
- Department of Applied Physics, School of Technology, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10003, Caceres, Spain
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21
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Arabasi S, Al-Taani H, Sbeih S, Gonzalez-Rubio J, Escobar I, Arribas E. Georeferencing of Personal Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields from Wi-Fi in a University Area. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E1898. [PMID: 32183369 PMCID: PMC7142519 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17061898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In the last two decades, due to the development of the information society, the massive increase in the use of information technologies, including the connection and communication of multiple electronic devices, highlighting Wi-Fi networks, as well as the emerging technological advances of 4G and 5G (new-generation mobile phones that will use 5G), have caused a significant increase in the personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF), and as a consequence, increasing discussions about the possible adverse health effects. The main objective of this study was to measure the personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields from the Wi-Fi in the university area of German Jordanian University (GJU) and prepare georeferenced maps of the registered intensity levels and to compare them with the basic international restrictions. Spot measurements were made outside the university area at German Jordanian University. Measurements were made in the whole university area and around two buildings. Two Satimo EME SPY 140 (Brest, France) personal exposimeters were used, and the measurements were performed in the morning and afternoon, and on weekends and weekdays. The total average personal exposure to RF-EMF from the Wi-Fi band registered in the three study areas and in the four days measured was 28.82 μW/m2. The average total exposure from the Wi-Fi band registered in the ten measured points of the university area of GJU was 22.97 μW/m2, the one registered in the eight measured points of building H was 34.48 μW/m2, and the one registered in the eight points of building C was 29.00 μW/m2. The maximum average values registered in the campus of GJU are below the guidelines allowed by International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The measurement protocol used in this work has been applied in measurements already carried out in Spain and Mexico, and it is applicable in university areas of other countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science, Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (R.R.-V.); (I.E.)
| | - Sameer Arabasi
- School of Basic Sciences and Humanities, German Jordanian University, Amman Madaba Street, P.O. Box 35247, Amman 11180, Jordan; (S.A.); (H.A.-T.); (S.S.)
| | - Hussein Al-Taani
- School of Basic Sciences and Humanities, German Jordanian University, Amman Madaba Street, P.O. Box 35247, Amman 11180, Jordan; (S.A.); (H.A.-T.); (S.S.)
| | - Suhad Sbeih
- School of Basic Sciences and Humanities, German Jordanian University, Amman Madaba Street, P.O. Box 35247, Amman 11180, Jordan; (S.A.); (H.A.-T.); (S.S.)
| | - Jesus Gonzalez-Rubio
- Medical Science Department, School of Medicine, University of Castilla-La Mancha, C/ Almansa 14, 02071 Albacete, Spain;
| | - Isabel Escobar
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science, Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (R.R.-V.); (I.E.)
| | - Enrique Arribas
- Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science, Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de España s/n, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain; (R.R.-V.); (I.E.)
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22
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Eeftens M, Dongus S, Bürgler A, Röösli M. A real-world quality assessment study in six ExpoM-RF measurement devices. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 182:109049. [PMID: 31918311 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.109049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Exposimeters measuring radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) are commonly used to assess personal exposure to RF-EMF in real-life environments. They are usually calibrated in an anechoic chamber using single, well-defined signals such as the center frequency of each band, and standardized orientations, but it is not clear how different devices compare in the real environment where complex mixtures of signals from all directions are present. We thus tested the comparability of six ExpoM-RF exposimeters before and after calibration in an anechoic chamber by varying their position and orientation while repeatedly measuring 15 microenvironments (9 walking routes, 4 tram routes and 2 bus routes) on 6 different days. We modelled the geometric mean levels of RF-EMF as a function of orientation, position, device ID, whether the device was recently calibrated, correcting for the microenvironment in which each measurement took place. We found that systematic differences introduced by device ID, calibration, day of the week, orientation and position are relatively small compared to exposure differences between microenvironments. Any corrections (if desired) should include both device ID and calibration session, but would have a small impact considering the negligible differences between devices. This supports the validity of previous exposure measurement studies relying on ExpoM-RF devices, which did not correct for device ID. We further found that summarizing the exposure per microenvironment as geometric means results in better models than arithmetic means and medians, and recommend that further exposure assessment studies report observed levels as geometric means.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marloes Eeftens
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical & Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Stefan Dongus
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical & Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Bürgler
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical & Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Martin Röösli
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical & Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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23
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Najera A, Ramirez-Vazquez R, Arribas E, Gonzalez-Rubio J. Comparison of statistic methods for censored personal exposure to RF-EMF data. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2020; 192:77. [PMID: 31897614 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-019-8021-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Several studies have characterized personal exposure to RF-EMF, which allows possible effects on health to be studied. All equipment has a detection limit, below which we obtain nondetects or censored data. This problem is a challenge for researchers as it makes the analysis of such data complex. We suggest reconsidering the statistical protocols of the nondetects analysis by comparing four different methods. Three of them substitute censored data using different approaches: regression on order of statistics (ROS) to simulate data below the detection limit (Method 1), substituting nondetect values by the detection limit divided by 2 (Method 2), a naïve calculation (Method 3) using the detection limit as a valid measurement. The fourth method consists of considering censored data to be missing values (Method 4). This article examines how these methods affect the quantification of personal exposure. We considered data from 14 frequency bands from FM to WiMax measured in Albacete (Spain) for 76 days every 10 s by a personal exposimeter (PEM) Satimo EME Spy 140.Methods 3 and 2 gave similar mean and median values to Method 1, but both underestimated the mean values when high nondetects records occurred, which conditioned the physical description of the real situation. The mean values calculated by Method 4 differed from those obtained by Method 1 but were similar when the percentage of nondetects was below 20%.Our comparison suggests that nondetects can be neglected when the percentage of censored data is low to provide a more realistic physical situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Najera
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | | | - Enrique Arribas
- Department of Applied Physics, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
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24
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Bolte JFB, Clahsen S, Vercruijsse W, Houtveen JH, Schipper CMA, van Kamp I, Bogers R. Ecological momentary assessment study of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields and non-specific physical symptoms with self-declared electrosensitives. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 131:104948. [PMID: 31288182 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.104948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The main objective of the study is to determine if non-specific physical symptoms (NSPS) in people with self-declared sensitivity to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF) can be explained (across subjects) by exposure to RF EMF. Furthermore, we pioneered whether analysis at the individual level or at the group level may lead to different conclusions. By our knowledge, this is the first longitudinal study exploring the data at the individual level. A group of 57 participants was equipped with a measurement set for five consecutive days. The measurement set consisted of a body worn exposimeter measuring the radiofrequency electromagnetic field in twelve frequency bands used for communication, a GPS logger, and an electronic diary giving cues at random intervals within a two to three hour interval. At every cue, a questionnaire on the most important health complaint and nine NSPS had to be filled out. We analysed the (time-lagged) associations between RF-EMF exposure in the included frequency bands and the total number of NSPS and self-rated severity of the most important health complaint. The manifestation of NSPS was studied during two different time lags - 0-1 h, and 1-4 h - after exposure and for different exposure metrics of RF EMF. The exposure was characterised by exposure metrics describing the central tendency and the intermittency of the signal, i.e. the time-weighted average exposure, the time above an exposure level or the rate of change metric. At group level, there was no statistically significant and relevant (fixed effect) association between the measured personal exposure to RF EMF and NSPS. At individual level, after correction for multiple testing and confounding, we found significant within-person associations between WiFi (the self-declared most important source) exposure metrics and the total NSPS score and severity of the most important complaint in one participant. However, it cannot be ruled out that this association is explained by residual confounding due to imperfect control for location or activities. Therefore, the outcomes have to be regarded very prudently. The significant associations were found for the short and the long time lag, but not always concurrently, so both provide complementary information. We also conclude that analyses at the individual level can lead to different findings when compared to an analysis at group level.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F B Bolte
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands; Smart Sensor Systems Research Group, Faculty of Technology, Innovation and Society, The Hague University of Applied Sciences (THUAS), Rotterdamseweg 137, 2628 AL Delft, the Netherlands.
| | - Sander Clahsen
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Wendy Vercruijsse
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Jan H Houtveen
- Interdisciplinary Center Psychopathology and Emotion Regulation, University Medical Center Groningen, PO Box 30001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - C Maarten A Schipper
- Department of Statistics, Informatics and Mathematical Modelling, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Irene van Kamp
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Rik Bogers
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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25
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Jalilian H, Eeftens M, Ziaei M, Röösli M. Public exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in everyday microenvironments: An updated systematic review for Europe. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 176:108517. [PMID: 31202043 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.05.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Communication technologies are rapidly changing and this may affect public exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). This systematic review of literature aims to update a previous review on public everyday RF-EMF exposure in Europe, which covered publications until 2015. From 144 eligible records identified by means of a systematic search in PubMed, Embase and Web of Knowledge databases, published between May 2015 and 1 July 2018, 26 records met the inclusion criteria. We extracted quantitative data on public exposure in different indoors, outdoors and transport environments. The data was descriptively analyzed with respect to the exposure patterns between different types of environments. Mean RF-EMF exposure in homes, schools and offices were between 0.04 and 0.76 V/m. Mean outdoor exposure values ranged from 0.07 to 1.27 V/m with downlink signals from mobile phone base stations being the most relevant contributor. RF-EMF levels tended to increase with increasing urbanity. Levels in public transport (bus, train and tram) and cars were between 0.14 and 0.69 V/m. The highest levels, up to 1.97 V/m, were measured in public transport stations with downlink as the most relevant contributor. In line with previous studies, RF-EMF exposure levels were highest in the transportation systems followed by outdoor and private indoor environments. This review does not indicate a noticeable increase in everyday RF-EMF exposure since 2012 despite increasing use of wireless communication devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Jalilian
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mansour Ziaei
- School of Health and Nutrition, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran.
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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26
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Gonzalez-Rubio J, Arribas E, Najera A. Personal RF-EMF exposure from mobile phone base stations during temporary events. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 175:266-273. [PMID: 31146098 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In recent years, radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) exposure has increased owing to new communication technologies. Simultaneously, increased exposure to RF-EMF has led to society's growing concern about the possible effects they may have on human health. Many studies have described personal RF-EMF exposure by using personal exposimeters to know a population's daily exposure to mobile phone base stations and to other sources whose installations tend to be permanent. Nonetheless during special events like concerts or fairs, where many people gather, permanent installations might not suffice to cover demand. So telephone companies install temporary stations for these events, and modify the exposure pattern of these areas or populations. OBJECTIVE To study if installing temporary antennae for large events, and high concentrations of mobile phones, modify the exposure pattern compared to usual situations. METHODS Personal RF-EMF exposure from mobile phones (uplink) and mobile phone base stations (downlink) installed at the 2017 Albacete Fair (Spain) was recorded. Between 7 and 17 September, more than 2,500,000 people visited this Fair. Measurements were taken by two Satimo EME SPY 140 personal exposimeters, placed one each side of a research team member's waist. These exposimeters were programmed to take measurements every 4 s at different time of day; morning, afternoon and night; and in several places, around the Fair Enclosure (zones Ejidos and Paseo) and inside the enclosure (Interior). These measurements were repeated on a weekday, at the weekend and the day after the Fair ended after temporary base stations had been removed. They were also taken for 1 h in all three zones, for each time of day; that is, 9 h were recorded for each study day. RESULTS The mean RF-EMF recorded exposure from base stations (downlink-DL) on the days the Fair opened (morning, afternoon and night) for the three studied zones was 791.8 μW/m2, while the exposure produced by mobile phones (uplink-UL) was 59.0 μW/m2. These values were 391.2 μW/m2 (DL) and 10.3 μW/m2 (UL) a few days after the event ended. In study zones Ejidos and Paseo, both outside, the highest mean exposure was recorded at the weekend as 1494.1 and 848.1 μW/m2 respectively. For the Interior zone, the mean value recorded during the Fair was 354.8 μW/m2. These values contrast with those recorded in the three zones after the event ended: 556.37 (Ejidos), 144.1 (Paseo); 473.21 μW/m2 (Interior). The fact that the mean exposure recorded at Interior was slightly higher after the Fair could be due to signal shielding by so many people. The reduction in exposure in Paseo after the Fair was outstanding, probably due to the antennae being placed on low towers. Major differences were also found in the RF-EMF exposure from UL. In this case, the weekend values taken during the Fair were between 28.2 μW/m2 at Interior (weekday) and 98.1 μW/m2 at Ejidos (weekend), which dropped to 5.5 at Paseo after the Fair, to 11.7 μW/m2 at Interior and to 13.6 μW/m2 at Ejidos. CONCLUSIONS Installing mobile phone base stations, and a dense public using mobile phones, imply a significant increase in personal RF-EMF exposure compared to that recorded during normal periods in the same area. However, the recorded measurements were below legally established limits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jesus Gonzalez-Rubio
- Medical Sciences, University: University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
| | - Enrique Arribas
- Applied Physics, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete Spain.
| | - Alberto Najera
- Medical Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
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27
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Velghe M, Joseph W, Debouvere S, Aminzadeh R, Martens L, Thielens A. Characterisation of spatial and temporal variability of RF-EMF exposure levels in urban environments in Flanders, Belgium. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 175:351-366. [PMID: 31150934 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Personal exposure to Radio-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMFs) was studied using personal measurements in five different microenvironments in each of five cities (Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges and Hasselt) in Flanders, Belgium. These measurements were carried out by two researchers using on-body calibrated personal exposimeters. In three out of the five studied cities (Brussels, Ghent and Bruges), temporal aspects of personal exposure to RF-EMFs were studied as well. Measurements during and outside of rush hours (7:00-9:15 and 16:30-19:00) were compared. Likewise, measurements were executed during night time and compared to the ones measured during working hours. Representativeness and repeatability of the measurement method was studied as well. The highest mean total exposure was found in Brussels (2.63 mW/m2), the most densely populated city in this study. However, we measured higher downlink exposure in Antwerp than in Brussels, which might be an effect of the stronger legislation on base stations in Brussels. The measurements and used protocol were found to be both repeatable over time (r = 0.95 for median total exposure) and representative for the studied microenvironments in terms of path selection (r = 0.88 for median total exposure). Finally, in 10 out of the 13 on-body calibrated frequency bands we found that the measurement devices underestimate the intensity of the incident RF-EMFs with median underestimations up to 68%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Velghe
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium.
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
| | - Senne Debouvere
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
| | - Reza Aminzadeh
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
| | - Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IMEC, Technologiepark 15, Ghent, 9052, Belgium; Berkeley Wireless Research Center, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, 2108 Allston Way, Suite 200, Berkeley, CA, 94704, USA
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28
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Massardier-Pilonchery A, Nerrière E, Croidieu S, Ndagijimana F, Gaudaire F, Martinsons C, Noé N, Hours M. Assessment of Personal Occupational Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields in Libraries and Media Libraries, Using Calibrated On-Body Exposimeters. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16122087. [PMID: 31200442 PMCID: PMC6616949 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16122087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: With the spread of Wifi networks, safety concerns have arisen, with complaints of somatic disorders, notably in traditional libraries and media libraries. The aim of the present study was to describe the conditions and levels of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in the real-life occupational conditions of those working in traditional libraries and media libraries. Methods: Dynamic measurements, using an exposimeter, were taken in 20 radiofrequency bands from 88 to 5850 MHz. The activity of 28 library workers was analyzed on a space-time budget. An audit of exposure sources and static measurements enabled the work-places to be mapped. Results: In seven libraries, 78,858 samples were taken over the 20 radiofrequency bands from 88 to 5850 MHz. Exposure was described for 28 working days. The median total field was 0.071 V/m (10th percentile: 0.022 V/m, 90th percentile: 0.534 V/m) and for Wifi the median field was 0.005 V/m (10th percentile: 0.005 V/m, 90th percentile: 0.028 V/m). Median individual exposure to Wifi frequency waves ranged from 0.005 to 0.040 V/m. Conclusions: Overall, the occupational exposure in this sector was close to the exposure in the general population. Peaks were due to the use of walkie-talkies by security staff. Exposure due to external sources depended on geographic location. Exposure in this occupation is well below the general occupational exposure levels, notably as regards Wifi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Massardier-Pilonchery
- Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon1, Ifsttar, UMRESTTE, UMR T_9405, 8 avenue Rockefeller 69373 Lyon, France.
- Centre Hospitalier Lyon Sud, Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69495 Pierre Bénite, France.
| | - Elena Nerrière
- Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon1, Ifsttar, UMRESTTE, UMR T_9405, 8 avenue Rockefeller 69373 Lyon, France.
| | - Sophie Croidieu
- Service de médecine préventive de la Ville Lyon, 69006 Lyon, France.
| | | | - François Gaudaire
- Division Eclairage et Champs Electromagnétiques, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, 24 rue Joseph Fourier, 38400 Saint Martin d'Hères, France.
| | - Christophe Martinsons
- Division Eclairage et Champs Electromagnétiques, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, 24 rue Joseph Fourier, 38400 Saint Martin d'Hères, France.
| | - Nicolas Noé
- Division Eclairage et Champs Electromagnétiques, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, 11 rue Henri Picherit, 44300 Nantes, France.
| | - Martine Hours
- Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon1, Ifsttar, UMRESTTE, UMR T_9405, 8 avenue Rockefeller 69373 Lyon, France.
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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Gonzalez-Rubio J, Arribas E, Najera A. Characterisation of personal exposure to environmental radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in Albacete (Spain) and assessment of risk perception. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 172:109-116. [PMID: 30782530 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
In the last decades, exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) has substantially increased as new wireless technologies have been introduced. Society has become more concerned about the possible effects of RF-EMF on human health in parallel to the increase in their exposure. The appearance of personal exposimeters opens up wide-ranging research possibilities. Despite studies having characterised personal exposure to RF-EMF, part of the population is still worried, to the extent that psychogenic diseases ("nocebo" effect) appear, and patients suffer. It could be interesting to share personal exposure results with the population to better understand and promote public health. The main objective was to characterise personal exposure to environmental RF-EMF in Albacete (166,000 inhabitants, SE Spain), and assess the effect of sharing the results of the study on participants' risk perception. Measurements were taken by a personal Satimo EME SPY 140 exposimeter, which was programmed every 10 s for 24 h. To measure personal exposure to RF-EMF, we worked with 75 volunteers. Their personal exposure, 14 microenvironments in the city, e.g., home, outdoors, work, etc., and possible time differences were analysed. After participating in the study, 35 participants completed a questionnaire about their RF-EMF risk perception, which was also answered by a control sample to compare the results (N = 36). The total average exposure of 14 bands was 37.7 μW/m2, and individual ranges fell between 0.2 μW/m2, recorded in TV4&5, and a maximum of 264.7 μW/m2 in DECT. For Friday, we recorded a mean of 53.9 μW/m2 as opposed to 23.4 μW/m2 obtained on Saturday. The recorded night-time value was 27.5 μW/m2 versus 43.8 μW/m2 recorded in the daytime. The mean personal exposure value also showed differences between weekdays and weekend days, with 39.7 μW/m2 and 26.9 μW/m2, respectively. The main source that contributed to the mean total personal exposure was enhanced cordless telecommunications (DECT) with 50.2%, followed by mobile phones with 18.4% and mobile stations with 11.0% (GSM, DCS and UMTS), while WiFi signals gave 12.5%. In the analysed microenvironments, the mean exposure of homes and workplaces was 34.3 μW/m2 and 55.2 μW/m2, respectively. Outdoors, the mean value was 34.2 μW/m2 and the main sources were DECT, WiFi and mobile phone stations, depending on the place. The risk perception analysis found that 54% of the participants perceived that RF-EMF were less dangerous than before participating in the study, while 43% reported no change in their perceptions. Only 9% of the volunteers who received information about their measurements after the study assessed the possible RF-EMF risk with a value over or equal to 4 (on a scale from 1 to 5) versus 39% of the non-participant controls. We conclude that personal exposure to RF-EMF fell well below the limits recommended by ICNIRP and showed wide temporal and spatial variability. The main exposure sources were DECT, followed by mobile phones and WiFi. Sharing exposure results with participants lowered their risk perception.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Enrique Arribas
- Applied Physics, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
| | - Alberto Najera
- Medical Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
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Chiaramello E, Bonato M, Fiocchi S, Tognola G, Parazzini M, Ravazzani P, Wiart J. Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields Exposure Assessment in Indoor Environments: A Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E955. [PMID: 30884917 PMCID: PMC6466609 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16060955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) in indoor environments depends on both outdoor sources such as radio, television and mobile phone antennas and indoor sources, such as mobile phones and wireless communications applications. Establishing the levels of exposure could be challenging due to differences in the approaches used in different studies. The goal of this study is to present an overview of the last ten years research efforts about RF EMF exposure in indoor environments, considering different RF-EMF sources found to cause exposure in indoor environments, different indoor environments and different approaches used to assess the exposure. The highest maximum mean levels of the exposure considering the whole RF-EMF frequency band was found in offices (1.14 V/m) and in public transports (0.97 V/m), while the lowest levels of exposure were observed in homes and apartments, with mean values in the range 0.13⁻0.43 V/m. The contribution of different RF-EMF sources to the total level of exposure was found to show slightly different patterns among the indoor environments, but this finding has to be considered as a time-dependent picture of the continuous evolving exposure to RF-EMF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Chiaramello
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Marta Bonato
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
- Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria DEIB, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Serena Fiocchi
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Gabriella Tognola
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Marta Parazzini
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Paolo Ravazzani
- Istituto di Elettronica e di Ingegneria dell'Informazione e delle Telecomunicazioni IEIIT CNR, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Joe Wiart
- Télécom ParisTech, LTCI University Paris Saclay, Chair C2M, 75013 Paris, France.
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31
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Zeleke BM, Bhatt CR, Brzozek C, Abramson MJ, Freudenstein F, Croft RJ, Wiedemann P, Benke G. Radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure and risk perception: A pilot experimental study. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 170:493-499. [PMID: 30690250 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.12.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/23/2018] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to far-field radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) has raised public concerns in recent decades. However, it is not known if individuals' perception towards the health risks of RF-EMF is dependent on their knowledge of the objectively measured personal RF-EMF exposure levels. OBJECTIVES This pilot study aimed to demonstrate the feasibility of objectively measuring personal RF-EMF exposure from mobile phone base stations (MPBS) and to determine if the risk perception of people to the potential health risk of exposure to RF-EMF from MPBS is dependent on their knowledge of personal RF-EMF exposure levels. DESIGN An experimental study was conducted in 383 adults, recruited in Melbourne, Australia. Participants were randomized to one of the three groups: 1) basic information group who were provided with basic information about RF-EMF to read prior to completing a risk perception assessment questionnaire; 2) precautionary group who were provided with an information pack which included precautionary messages; and 3) personal exposure measurement group who were provided with a summary of their quantitative RF-EMF exposure from MPBS. The same basic information about RF-EMF was also given to the precautionary and personal exposure measurement groups. RESULTS Participants had a mean (± SD) age of 36.9 ± 12.5 years; 66.7% were women. Overall, 44.1% had noticed an MPBS in their neighbourhood. The mean (SD) values (from 1 to 7) for risk perceptions to RF-EMF from MPBS were 4.02 (1.67) for basic information, 3.82 (1.62) for precautionary messages, and 3.97 (1.72) for the personal exposure measurement groups. These differences were not statistically significant. Nevertheless, the personal exposure measurement group were more confident that they could protect themselves from RF-EMF than the precautionary or basic information groups. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that providing people with personal RF-EMF exposure measurements may not affect their perceived risk from MPBS, but increase their confidence in protecting themselves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berihun M Zeleke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, 3004 Victoria, Australia; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, 3004 Victoria, Australia.
| | - Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, 3004 Victoria, Australia; Monash University Endocrine Surgery Unit, Alfred Hospital, 55 Commercial Rd, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia; Monash Emergency Service, Monash Health, Dandenong Hospital, 135 David Street, Melbourne, VIC 3175, Australia.
| | - Christopher Brzozek
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, 3004 Victoria, Australia; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, 3004 Victoria, Australia.
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, 3004 Victoria, Australia; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, 3004 Victoria, Australia.
| | - Frederik Freudenstein
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, 2522 NSW, Australia.
| | - Rodney J Croft
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, 2522 NSW, Australia.
| | - Peter Wiedemann
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, 2522 NSW, Australia.
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, 3004 Victoria, Australia; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, 3004 Victoria, Australia.
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Eeftens M, Struchen B, Birks LE, Cardis E, Estarlich M, Fernandez MF, Gajšek P, Gallastegi M, Huss A, Kheifets L, Meder IK, Olsen J, Torrent M, Trček T, Valič B, Vermeulen R, Vrijheid M, van Wel L, Guxens M, Röösli M. Personal exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic fields in Europe: Is there a generation gap? ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 121:216-226. [PMID: 30216774 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) from mobile communication technologies is changing rapidly. To characterize sources and associated variability, we studied the differences and correlations in exposure patterns between children aged 8 to 18 and their parents, over the course of the day, by age, by activity pattern, and for different metrics of exposure. METHODS Using portable RF-EMF measurement devices, we collected simultaneous real-time personal measurements of RF-EMF over 24 to 72 h in 294 parent-child pairs from Denmark, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Spain. The devices measured the power flux density (mW/m2) in 16 different frequency bands every 4 s, and activity diary Apps kept by the participants were used to collect time-activity information in real-time. We analyzed their exposures by activity, for the different source constituents of exposure: downlink (radiation emitted from mobile phone base stations), uplink (transmission from phone to base station), broadcast, DECT (digital enhanced cordless telecommunications) and Wi-Fi. We looked at the correlations between parents and children overall, during day (06:00-22.00) and night (22:00-06:00) and while spending time at home. RESULTS The mean of time-weighted average personal exposures was 0.16 mW/m2 for children and 0.15 mW/m2 for parents, on average predominantly originating from downlink sources (47% for children and 45% for parents), followed by uplink (18% and 27% respectively) and broadcast (25% and 19%). On average, exposure for downlink and uplink were highest during the day, and for Wi-Fi and DECT during the evening. Exposure during activities where most of the time is spent (home, school and work) was relatively low whereas exposure during travel and outside activities was higher. Exposure to uplink increased with age among young people, while DECT decreased slightly. Exposure to downlink, broadcast, and Wi-Fi showed no obvious trend with age. We found that exposure to total RF-EMF is correlated among children and their parents (Rspearman = 0.45), especially while at home (0.62) and during the night (0.60). Correlations were higher for environmental sources such as downlink (0.57) and broadcast (0.62) than for usage-related exposures such as uplink (0.29). CONCLUSION The generation gap between children and their parents is mostly evident in uplink exposure, due to more and longer uplink and cordless phone calls among parents, and their tendency to spend slightly more time in activities with higher environmental RF-EMF exposure, such as travel. Despite these differences in personal behavior, exposure to RF-EMF is moderately correlated between children and their parents, especially exposures resulting from environmental RF-EMF sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marloes Eeftens
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Laura Ellen Birks
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Elisabeth Cardis
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marisa Estarlich
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Mariana F Fernandez
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; University of Granada, Center for Biomedical Research (CIBM), & Biosanitary Research Institute of Granada (ibs.GRANADA), Spain
| | - Peter Gajšek
- Institute of Non-ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Mara Gallastegi
- BIODONOSTIA Health Research Institute, Dr. Begiristain Pasealekua, San Sebastian, Spain; University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Preventative Medicine and Public Health Department, Faculty of Medicine, Leioa, Spain
| | - Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Leeka Kheifets
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | | | - Jørn Olsen
- Danish Epidemiology Science Centre, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Tomaž Trček
- Institute of Non-ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Blaž Valič
- Institute of Non-ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Martine Vrijheid
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luuk van Wel
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Mònica Guxens
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus University Medical Centre-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Bogers RP, van Gils A, Clahsen SCS, Vercruijsse W, van Kamp I, Baliatsas C, Rosmalen JGM, Bolte JFB. Individual variation in temporal relationships between exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields and non-specific physical symptoms: A new approach in studying 'electrosensitivity'. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 121:297-307. [PMID: 30227317 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Everyday exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) emitted from wireless devices such as mobile phones and base stations, radio and television transmitters is ubiquitous. Some people attribute non-specific physical symptoms (NSPS) such as headache and fatigue to exposure to RF-EMF. Most previous laboratory studies or studies that analyzed populations at a group level did not find evidence of an association between RF-EMF exposure and NSPS. OBJECTIVES We explored the association between exposure to RF-EMF in daily life and the occurrence of NSPS in individual self-declared electrohypersensitive persons using body worn exposimeters and electronic diaries. METHODS We selected seven individuals who attributed their NSPS to RF-EMF exposure. The level of and variability in personal RF-EMF exposure and NSPS were determined during a three-week period. Data were analyzed using time series analysis in which exposure as measured and recorded in the diary was correlated with NSPS. RESULTS We found statistically significant correlations between perceived and actual exposure to wireless internet (WiFi - rate of change and number of peaks above threshold) and base stations for mobile telecommunications (GSM + UMTS downlink, rate of change) and NSPS scores in four of the seven participants. In two persons a higher EMF exposure was associated with higher symptom scores, and in two other persons it was associated with lower scores. Remarkably, we found no significant correlations between NSPS and time-weighted average power density, the most commonly used exposure metric. CONCLUSIONS RF-EMF exposure was associated either positively or negatively with NSPS in some but not all of the selected self-declared electrohypersensitive persons.
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Affiliation(s)
- R P Bogers
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
| | - A van Gils
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Interdisciplinary Center Psychopathology and Emotion regulation (ICPE), PO Box 30.001, Hospital mail address CC72, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | - S C S Clahsen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
| | - W Vercruijsse
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
| | - I van Kamp
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
| | - C Baliatsas
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
| | - J G M Rosmalen
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Interdisciplinary Center Psychopathology and Emotion regulation (ICPE), PO Box 30.001, Hospital mail address CC72, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | - J F B Bolte
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands; The Hague University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Technology, Innovation, and Society, Smart Sensor Systems group, Rotterdamseweg 137, 2628 AL Delft, the Netherlands.
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Eeftens M, Struchen B, Roser K, Zahner M, Fröhlich J, Röösli M. Dealing with crosstalk in electromagnetic field measurements of portable devices. Bioelectromagnetics 2018; 39:529-538. [DOI: 10.1002/bem.22142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marloes Eeftens
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health; Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute; Basel Switzerland
- University of Basel; Basel Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health; Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute; Basel Switzerland
- University of Basel; Basel Switzerland
| | - Katharina Roser
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health; Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute; Basel Switzerland
- University of Basel; Basel Switzerland
- University of Lucerne; Lucerne Switzerland
| | - Marco Zahner
- Fields at Work GmbH; Zurich Switzerland
- Institute of Electromagnetic Fields (IEF); ETH Zurich; Zurich Switzerland
| | | | - Martin Röösli
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health; Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute; Basel Switzerland
- University of Basel; Basel Switzerland
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Zeleke BM, Brzozek C, Bhatt CR, Abramson MJ, Croft RJ, Freudenstein F, Wiedemann P, Benke G. Personal Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields among Australian Adults. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15102234. [PMID: 30321997 PMCID: PMC6211035 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15102234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The measurement of personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) is important for epidemiological studies. RF-EMF exposure can be measured using personal exposimeters that register RF-EMFs over a wide range of frequency bands. This study aimed to measure and describe personal RF-EMF exposure levels from a wide range of frequency bands. Measurements were recorded from 63 participants over an average of 27.4 (±4.5) hours. RF-EMF exposure levels were computed for each frequency band, as well as from downlink (RF from mobile phone base station), uplink (RF from mobile phone handsets), broadcast, and Wi-Fi. Participants had a mean (±SD) age of 36.9 ± 12.5 years; 66.7% were women; and almost all (98.2%) from urban areas. A Wi-Fi router at home was reported by 61 participants (96.8%), with 38 (61.2%) having a Wi-Fi enabled smart TV. Overall, 26 (41.3%) participants had noticed the existence of a mobile phone base station in their neighborhood. On average, participants estimated the distance between the base station and their usual residence to be about 500 m. The median personal RF-EMF exposure was 208 mV/m. Downlink contributed 40.4% of the total RF-EMF exposure, followed by broadcast (22.4%), uplink (17.3%), and Wi-Fi (15.9%). RF-EMF exposure levels on weekdays were higher than weekends (p < 0.05). Downlink and broadcast are the main contributors to total RF-EMF personal exposure. Personal RF-EMF exposure levels vary according to day of the week and time of day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berihun M Zeleke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Christopher Brzozek
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Monash University Endocrine Surgery Unit, Alfred Hospital, 55 Commercial Rd, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Monash Emergency Service, Monash Health, Dandenong Hospital, 135 David Street, Melbourne, VIC 3175, Australia.
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
| | - Rodney J Croft
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Frederik Freudenstein
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Peter Wiedemann
- Australian Centre for Electromagnetic Bioeffects Research, Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
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36
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Birks LE, Struchen B, Eeftens M, van Wel L, Huss A, Gajšek P, Kheifets L, Gallastegi M, Dalmau-Bueno A, Estarlich M, Fernandez MF, Meder IK, Ferrero A, Jiménez-Zabala A, Torrent M, Vrijkotte TGM, Cardis E, Olsen J, Valič B, Vermeulen R, Vrijheid M, Röösli M, Guxens M. Spatial and temporal variability of personal environmental exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic fields in children in Europe. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 117:204-214. [PMID: 29754001 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2017] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) has rapidly increased and little is known about exposure levels in children. This study describes personal RF-EMF environmental exposure levels from handheld devices and fixed site transmitters in European children, the determinants of this, and the day-to-day and year-to-year repeatability of these exposure levels. METHODS Personal environmental RF-EMF exposure (μW/m2, power flux density) was measured in 529 children (ages 8-18 years) in Denmark, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Spain using personal portable exposure meters for a period of up to three days between 2014 and 2016, and repeated in a subsample of 28 children one year later. The meters captured 16 frequency bands every 4 s and incorporated a GPS. Activity diaries and questionnaires were used to collect children's location, use of handheld devices, and presence of indoor RF-EMF sources. Six general frequency bands were defined: total, digital enhanced cordless telecommunications (DECT), television and radio antennas (broadcast), mobile phones (uplink), mobile phone base stations (downlink), and Wireless Fidelity (WiFi). We used adjusted mixed effects models with region random effects to estimate associations of handheld device use habits and indoor RF-EMF sources with personal RF-EMF exposure. Day-to-day and year-to-year repeatability of personal RF-EMF exposure were calculated through intraclass correlations (ICC). RESULTS Median total personal RF-EMF exposure was 75.5 μW/m2. Downlink was the largest contributor to total exposure (median: 27.2 μW/m2) followed by broadcast (9.9 μW/m2). Exposure from uplink (4.7 μW/m2) was lower. WiFi and DECT contributed very little to exposure levels. Exposure was higher during day (94.2 μW/m2) than night (23.0 μW/m2), and slightly higher during weekends than weekdays, although varying across regions. Median exposures were highest while children were outside (157.0 μW/m2) or traveling (171.3 μW/m2), and much lower at home (33.0 μW/m2) or in school (35.1 μW/m2). Children living in urban environments had higher exposure than children in rural environments. Older children and users of mobile phones had higher uplink exposure but not total exposure, compared to younger children and those that did not use mobile phones. Day-to-day repeatability was moderate to high for most of the general frequency bands (ICCs between 0.43 and 0.85), as well as for total, broadcast, and downlink for the year-to-year repeatability (ICCs between 0.49 and 0.80) in a small subsample. CONCLUSION The largest contributors to total personal environmental RF-EMF exposure were downlink and broadcast, and these exposures showed high repeatability. Urbanicity was the most important determinant of total exposure and mobile phone use was the most important determinant of uplink exposure. It is important to continue evaluating RF-EMF exposure in children as device use habits, exposure levels, and main contributing sources may change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Ellen Birks
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Departement of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel 4051, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Departement of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel 4051, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Luuk van Wel
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Gajšek
- Institute of Non-ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Leeka Kheifets
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Mara Gallastegi
- BIODONOSTIA Health Research Institute, Dr. Begiristain Pasealekua, San Sebastian, Spain; University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Preventative Medicine and Public Health Department, Faculty of Medicine, Leioa, Spain
| | - Albert Dalmau-Bueno
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marisa Estarlich
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Mariana F Fernandez
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; University of Granada, Department of Radiology and Physical Medicine, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Granada, Spain
| | | | - Amparo Ferrero
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Ana Jiménez-Zabala
- BIODONOSTIA Health Research Institute, Dr. Begiristain Pasealekua, San Sebastian, Spain; Public Health Division of Gipuzkoa, Basque Government, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Maties Torrent
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; ib-salut, Area de Salut de Menorca, Menorca, Spain
| | - Tanja G M Vrijkotte
- Department of Public Health - Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth Cardis
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jørn Olsen
- Danish Epidemiology Science Centre, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Blaž Valič
- Institute of Non-ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands; School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Martine Vrijheid
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Martin Röösli
- Departement of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel 4051, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mònica Guxens
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus University Medical Centre-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Choi J, Hwang JH, Lim H, Joo H, Yang HS, Lee YH, Eeftens M, Struchen B, Röösli M, Lee AK, Choi HD, Kwon JH, Ha M. Assessment of radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure from personal measurements considering the body shadowing effect in Korean children and parents. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 627:1544-1551. [PMID: 30857115 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We aimed to assess the personal radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure levels of children and adults through their activities, with consideration to the body shadowing effect. We recruited 50 child-adult pairs, living in Seoul, Cheonan, and Ulsan, South Korea. RF-EMF measurements were performed between September and December 2016, using a portable exposure meter tailored to capture 14 Korean radiofrequency (RF) bands ranging from 87.5 to 5875MHz. The participants carried the device for 48h and kept a time-activity diary using a smartphone application in flight mode. To enhance accuracy of the exposure assessment, the body shadowing effect was compensated during the statistical analysis with the measured RF-EMF exposure. The compensation was conducted using the hybrid model that represents the decrease of the exposure level due to the body shadowing effect. A generalized linear mixed model was used to compare the RF-EMF exposure levels by subjects and activities. The arithmetic (geometric) means of the total power density were 174.9 (36.6) μW/m2 for all participants, 226.9 (44.6) for fathers, 245.4 (44.8) for mothers, and 116.2 (30.1) for children. By compensating for the body shadowing effect, the total RF-EMF exposure increased marginally, approximately 1.4 times. Each frequency band contribution to total RF-EMF exposure consisted of 76.7%, 2.4%, 9.9%, 5.0%, 3.3%, and 2.6% for downlink, uplink, WiFi, FM Radio, TV, and WiBro bands, respectively. Among the three regions, total RF-EMF exposure was highest in Seoul, and among the activities, it was highest in the metro, followed by foot/bicycle, bus/car, and outside. The contribution of base-station exposure to total RF-EMF exposure was the highest both in parents and children. Total and base-station RF-EMF exposure levels in Korea were higher than those reported in European countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonghyuk Choi
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Hwan Hwang
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyungrul Lim
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunjoo Joo
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Sun Yang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Han Lee
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ae-Kyoung Lee
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung-Do Choi
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Hwa Kwon
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Mina Ha
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea.
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de Miguel-Bilbao S, Blas J, Ramos V. Effective Analysis of Human Exposure Conditions with Body-worn Dosimeters in the 2.4 GHz Band. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 29781983 PMCID: PMC6101059 DOI: 10.3791/56525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
A well-defined experimental procedure is put forward to evaluate maximum exposure conditions in a worst-case scenario whilst avoiding the uncertainties caused by the use of personal exposimeters (PEMs) as measuring devices: the body shadow effect (BSE), the limited sensitivity range, and the non-identification of the radiation source. An upper bound for exposure levels to EMF in several indoor enclosures has been measured and simulated. The frequency used for the study is 2.4 GHz, as it is the most commonly used band in indoor communications. Although recorded values are well below the International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) reference levels, there is a particular need to provide reliable exposure levels within particularly sensitive environments. In terms of electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure, limits established in national and international standards for health protection have been set for unperturbed exposure conditions; that is, for real and objective exposure data that have not been altered in any way.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Juan Blas
- Signal Theory and Communications, and Telematic Engineering Department, Universidad de Valladolid
| | - Victoria Ramos
- Telemedicine and e-Health Research Unit, Instituto de Salud Carlos III
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Thielens A, Van den Bossche M, Brzozek C, Bhatt CR, Abramson MJ, Benke G, Martens L, Joseph W. Representativeness and repeatability of microenvironmental personal and head exposures to radio-frequency electromagnetic fields. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2018; 162:81-96. [PMID: 29289859 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Revised: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The aims of this study were to: i) investigate the repeatability and representativeness of personal radio frequency-electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) exposure measurements, across different microenvironments, ii) perform simultaneous evaluations of personal RF-EMF exposures for the whole body and the head, iii) validate the data obtained with a head-worn personal distributed exposimeter (PDE) against those obtained with an on-body worn personal exposimeter (PEM). Data on personal and head RF-EMF exposures were collected by performing measurements across 15 microenvironments in Melbourne, Australia. A body-worn PEM and a head-worn PDE were used for measuring body and head exposures, respectively. The summary statistics obtained for total RF-EMF exposure showed a high representativeness (r2 > 0.66 for two paths in the same area) and a high repeatability over time (r2 > 0.87 for repetitions of the same path). The median head exposure in the 900MHz downlink band ranged between 0.06V/m and 0.31V/m. The results obtained during simultaneous measurements using the two devices showed high correlations (0.42 < r2 < 0.94). The highest mean total RF-EMF exposure was measured in Melbourne's central business district (0.89V/m), whereas the lowest mean total exposure was measured in a suburban residential area (0.05V/m). This study shows that personal RF-EMF microenvironmental measurements in multiple microenvironments have high representativeness and repeatability over time. The personal RF-EMF exposure levels (i.e. body and head exposures) demonstrated moderate to high correlations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, Ghent B-9052, Belgium; Berkeley Wireless Research Center, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, 2108 Allston Way, Suite 200, Berkeley, CA 94704, United States.
| | - Matthias Van den Bossche
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Christopher Brzozek
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
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40
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Sagar S, Dongus S, Schoeni A, Roser K, Eeftens M, Struchen B, Foerster M, Meier N, Adem S, Röösli M. Radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure in everyday microenvironments in Europe: A systematic literature review. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2018; 28:147-160. [PMID: 28766560 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2017.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/07/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The impact of the introduction and advancement in communication technology in recent years on exposure level of the population is largely unknown. The main aim of this study is to systematically review literature on the distribution of radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in the everyday environment in Europe and summarize key characteristics of various types of RF-EMF studies conducted in the European countries. We systematically searched the ISI Web of Science for relevant literature published between 1 January 2000 and 30 April 2015, which assessed RF-EMF exposure levels by any of the methods: spot measurements, personal measurement with trained researchers and personal measurement with volunteers. Twenty-one published studies met our eligibility criteria of which 10 were spot measurements studies, 5 were personal measurement studies with trained researchers (microenvironmental), 5 were personal measurement studies with volunteers and 1 was a mixed methods study combining data collected by volunteers and trained researchers. RF-EMF data included in the studies were collected between 2005 and 2013. The mean total RF-EMF exposure for spot measurements in European "Homes" and "Outdoor" microenvironments was 0.29 and 0.54 V/m, respectively. In the personal measurements studies with trained researchers, the mean total RF-EMF exposure was 0.24 V/m in "Home" and 0.76 V/m in "Outdoor". In the personal measurement studies with volunteers, the population weighted mean total RF-EMF exposure was 0.16 V/m in "Homes" and 0.20 V/m in "Outdoor". Among all European microenvironments in "Transportation", the highest mean total RF-EMF 1.96 V/m was found in trains of Belgium during 2007 where more than 95% of exposure was contributed by uplink. Typical RF-EMF exposure levels are substantially below regulatory limits. We found considerable differences between studies according to the type of measurements procedures, which precludes cross-country comparison or evaluating temporal trends. A comparable RF-EMF monitoring concept is needed to accurately identify typical RF-EMF exposure levels in the everyday environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Sagar
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Dongus
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Anna Schoeni
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Katharina Roser
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Milena Foerster
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Noëmi Meier
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University Children's Hospital Basel, Spitalstrasse 33, Basel 4056, Switzerland
| | - Seid Adem
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Martin Röösli
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
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41
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Aminzadeh R, Thielens A, Agneessens S, Van Torre P, Van den Bossche M, Dongus S, Eeftens M, Huss A, Vermeulen R, de Seze R, Mazet P, Cardis E, Rogier H, Röösli M, Martens L, Joseph W. A Multi-Band Body-Worn Distributed Radio-Frequency Exposure Meter: Design, On-Body Calibration and Study of Body Morphology. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2018; 18:E272. [PMID: 29346280 PMCID: PMC5795740 DOI: 10.3390/s18010272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
A multi-band Body-Worn Distributed exposure Meter (BWDM) calibrated for simultaneous measurement of the incident power density in 11 telecommunication frequency bands, is proposed. The BDWM consists of 22 textile antennas integrated in a garment and is calibrated on six human subjects in an anechoic chamber to assess its measurement uncertainty in terms of 68% confidence interval of the on-body antenna aperture. It is shown that by using multiple antennas in each frequency band, the uncertainty of the BWDM is 22 dB improved with respect to single nodes on the front and back of the torso and variations are decreased to maximum 8.8 dB. Moreover, deploying single antennas for different body morphologies results in a variation up to 9.3 dB, which is reduced to 3.6 dB using multiple antennas for six subjects with various body mass index values. The designed BWDM, has an improved uncertainty of up to 9.6 dB in comparison to commercially available personal exposure meters calibrated on body. As an application, an average incident power density in the range of 26.7-90.8 μW·m - 2 is measured in Ghent, Belgium. The measurements show that commercial personal exposure meters underestimate the actual exposure by a factor of up to 20.6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reza Aminzadeh
- Department of Information Technology (INTEC), Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology (INTEC), Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Sam Agneessens
- Department of Information Technology (INTEC), Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Patrick Van Torre
- Department of Information Technology (INTEC), Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Matthias Van den Bossche
- Department of Information Technology (INTEC), Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Stefan Dongus
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051 Basel, Switzerland.
- University of Basel, Petersplastz 1, 4001 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051 Basel, Switzerland.
- University of Basel, Petersplastz 1, 4001 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - René de Seze
- National Institute for Industrial Environment and Risks (INERIS), Parc Technologique Alata BP2, 60550 Verneuil-en-Halatte, France.
| | - Paul Mazet
- Technical Center for Mechanical Industries (CETIM), 60300 Senlis, France.
| | - Elisabeth Cardis
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Hendrik Rogier
- Department of Information Technology (INTEC), Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Martin Röösli
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051 Basel, Switzerland.
- University of Basel, Petersplastz 1, 4001 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology (INTEC), Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology (INTEC), Ghent University/imec, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium.
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Gonzalez-Rubio J, Arribas E, Ramirez-Vazquez R, Najera A. Radiofrequency electromagnetic fields and some cancers of unknown etiology: An ecological study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 599-600:834-843. [PMID: 28499231 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Simultaneously with the increase of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) in recent decades, there has been increasing concern about their potential relation with the etiology of several tumors. At this time, the techniques of spatial data analysis jointly with the study of the personal exposure to these fields offer a new approach to the problem. This paper presents the results of a preliminary epidemiological study, combining Epidemiology, Statistics and Geographical Information Systems (GIS), in which we analyzed the correlation between exposure to RF-EMF in the city of Albacete (166,000 inhabitants, southeast Spain) and the incidence of several cancers with unspecific causes (lymphomas, and brain tumors). We used statistical tools to analyze the spatial point patterns and aggregate data with the aim to study the spatial randomness and to determine the zones with the highest incidence from 95 tumors studied (65 lymphomas, 12 gliomas and 18 meningiomas). We also perform a correlation (Spearman) study between the personal exposure to RF-EMF in 14 frequency bands, recorded by an EME Spy 140 (Satimo) exposimeter in the city's administrative regions, and the incidence of the tumors registered from January 2012 to May 2015. The studied cancer cases have a random spatial distribution inside the city. On the other hand, and by means of an ecological study, we verified that the exposure to RF-EMF registered in the city of Albacete shows little correlation with the incidence of the studied tumors (gliomas (ρ=0.15), meningiomas (ρ=0.19) and lymphomas (ρ=-0.03)). The proposed methodology inaugurates an unexplored analysis path in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesus Gonzalez-Rubio
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
| | - Enrique Arribas
- Department of Applied Physics, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
| | | | - Alberto Najera
- Department of Applied Physics, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
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43
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Roser K, Schoeni A, Struchen B, Zahner M, Eeftens M, Fröhlich J, Röösli M. Personal radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure measurements in Swiss adolescents. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2017; 99:303-314. [PMID: 28038972 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2016] [Revised: 12/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/11/2016] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adolescents belong to the heaviest users of wireless communication devices, but little is known about their personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). OBJECTIVES The aim of this paper is to describe personal RF-EMF exposure of Swiss adolescents and evaluate exposure relevant factors. Furthermore, personal measurements were used to estimate average contributions of various sources to the total absorbed RF-EMF dose of the brain and the whole body. METHODS Personal exposure was measured using a portable RF-EMF measurement device (ExpoM-RF) measuring 13 frequency bands ranging from 470 to 3600MHz. The participants carried the device for three consecutive days and kept a time-activity diary. In total, 90 adolescents aged 13 to 17years participated in the study conducted between May 2013 and April 2014. In addition, personal measurement values were combined with dose calculations for the use of wireless communication devices to quantify the contribution of various RF-EMF sources to the daily RF-EMF dose of adolescents. RESULTS Main contributors to the total personal RF-EMF measurements of 63.2μW/m2 (0.15V/m) were exposures from mobile phones (67.2%) and from mobile phone base stations (19.8%). WLAN at school and at home had little impact on the personal measurements (WLAN accounted for 3.5% of total personal measurements). According to the dose calculations, exposure from environmental sources (broadcast transmitters, mobile phone base stations, cordless phone base stations, WLAN access points, and mobile phones in the surroundings) contributed on average 6.0% to the brain dose and 9.0% to the whole-body dose. CONCLUSIONS RF-EMF exposure of adolescents is dominated by their own mobile phone use. Environmental sources such as mobile phone base stations play a minor role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Roser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anna Schoeni
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marco Zahner
- Institute for Electromagnetic Fields, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH Zürich), Gloriastrasse 35, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland; Fields at Work GmbH, Sonneggstrasse 60, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jürg Fröhlich
- Institute for Electromagnetic Fields, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH Zürich), Gloriastrasse 35, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland; Fields at Work GmbH, Sonneggstrasse 60, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland.
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44
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Bhatt CR, Thielens A, Billah B, Redmayne M, Abramson MJ, Sim MR, Vermeulen R, Martens L, Joseph W, Benke G. Assessment of personal exposure from radiofrequency-electromagnetic fields in Australia and Belgium using on-body calibrated exposimeters. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2016; 151:547-563. [PMID: 27588949 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2016.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The purposes of this study were: i) to demonstrate the assessment of personal exposure from various RF-EMF sources across different microenvironments in Australia and Belgium, with two on-body calibrated exposimeters, in contrast to earlier studies which employed single, non-on-body calibrated exposimeters; ii) to systematically evaluate the performance of the exposimeters using (on-body) calibration and cross-talk measurements; and iii) to compare the exposure levels measured for one site in each of several selected microenvironments in the two countries. A human subject took part in an on-body calibration of the exposimeter in an anechoic chamber. The same subject collected data on personal exposures across 38 microenvironments (19 in each country) situated in urban, suburban and rural regions. Median personal RF-EMF exposures were estimated: i) of all microenvironments, and ii) across each microenvironment, in two countries. The exposures were then compared across similar microenvironments in two countries (17 in each country). The three highest median total exposure levels were: city center (4.33V/m), residential outdoor (urban) (0.75V/m), and a park (0.75V/m) [Australia]; and a tram station (1.95V/m), city center (0.95V/m), and a park (0.90V/m) [Belgium]. The exposures across nine microenvironments in Melbourne, Australia were lower than the exposures across corresponding microenvironments in Ghent, Belgium (p<0.05). The personal exposures across urban microenvironments were higher than those for rural or suburban microenvironments. Similarly, the exposure levels across outdoor microenvironments were higher than those for indoor microenvironments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Arno Thielens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Technologiepark - Zwijnaarde 15, Ghent B-9052, Belgium.
| | - Baki Billah
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Mary Redmayne
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Malcolm R Sim
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands; Julius Centre for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Imperial College, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Technologiepark - Zwijnaarde 15, Ghent B-9052, Belgium.
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, Technologiepark - Zwijnaarde 15, Ghent B-9052, Belgium.
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria 3004, Melbourne, Australia.
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