Urinary bisphenol levels in plastic industry workers

Environmental and occupational exposure to bisphenol compounds in Finland

The aim of the study was to assess non-occupational and occupational exposure to bisphenol compounds in Finland. The participants were 151 non-occupationally exposed volunteers and 15 potentially exposed employees of a sewage-pipe relining company and a floor-coating company. The following chemicals were measured in the urine samples: bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE), bisphenol F diglycidyl ether (BFDGE), and the metabolites of the latter two [bisphenol A (2,3-dihydroxypropyl) glycidyl ether (BADGE·H2O), bisphenol A bis(2,3-dihydroxypropyl) ether (BADGE·2 H2O), bisphenol A (3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl) (2,3-dihydroxypropyl) ether (BADGE·HCl·H2O), bisphenol A (3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl) glycidyl ether (BADGE·HCl), and bisphenol A bis(3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl) ether (BADGE·2HCl) and bisphenol F bis(2,3-dihydroxypropyl) ether (BFDGE·2 H2O), and bisphenol F bis(3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl) ether (BFDGE·2HCl)]. BADGE and BFDGE were also measured in breathing zone air samples and hand-wipe samples of the sewage-pipe relining and floor-coating workers. Non-occupational exposure to BPA has decreased in Finland. The BPF level of the non-occupationally exposed was higher than the respective levels reported in the recent literature. BPA and BPF concentrations in the workers' urine samples were in the same range as those in the corresponding concentrations of the non-occupationally exposed population. Higher concentrations of BADGE and BFDGE metabolites were found in some of the workers' urine samples. Elevated urine concentrations were also observed in the samples collected the next morning. Some of the urinary BADGE and BFDGE metabolite results correlated with the hand-wipe results. The results show that occupational exposure to BADGE and BFDGE may occur in sewage-pipe relining and floor-coating work. They also indicate that dermal contamination plays a role in total exposure. Although the measured urinary levels indicate that the absorption of these bisphenol compounds are unlikely to pose a systemic health risk, the risk of dermal sensitization remains.

Long-term exposure of endangered Danube sturgeon (Acipenser gueldenstaedtii) to bisphenol A (BPA): growth, behavioral, histological, genotoxic, and hematological evaluation

Danube sturgeon (Acipenser gueldenstaedtii) which is identified as endangered species can be exposed to pollutants such as bisphenol A (BPA) that have a disruptive effect on the endocrine system at any time. Starting from this motivation, the current study focused on BPA toxicity in A. gueldenstaedtii juvenile individuals and its adverse effects in sub-lethal concentration. The median lethal concentration (LC50) of BPA was 5.03 mg/L in 96th hour. In the chronic period, 0.625 mg/L and 1.25 mg/L BPA concentrations were evaluated based on the result of acute study. Accordingly, growth performance was significantly decreased in BPA groups (1.25 mg/L BPA group was significantly lowest) compared to control (p < 0.05). In the acute period, behavioral disorders were standing at the bottom/corner of tank, slowing and stopping of gill movement, decreased response to stimuli, and death, respectively. While vacuolization was severe in the liver tissue of the fish in the acute period, intense necrosis and melanomacrophage centers were observed in the chronic period. In terms of genotoxicity, longer DNA migration was observed in all groups exposed to BPA than in the control group. In addition, lower erythrocyte and hemoglobin were observed in the BPA groups compared to control. As a result, the current study revealed toxic effect of BPA on A. gueldenstaedtii juvenile individuals and its negative results on fish physiology.

Biomonitoring of Exposures to Solvents and Metals in Electronics Manufacturing Facilities in Batam, Indonesia

Concerns about chemical exposure in the electronics manufacturing industry have long been recognized, but data are lacking in Southeast Asia. We conducted a study in Batam, Indonesia, to evaluate chemical exposures in electronics facilities, using participatory research and biological monitoring approaches. A convenience sample of 36 workers (28 exposed, 8 controls) was recruited, and urine samples were collected before and after shifts. Five solvents (acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, benzene, and xylenes) were found in 46%-97% of samples, and seven metals (arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, tin, antimony, lead, and vanadium) were detected in 60%-100% of samples. Biological monitoring and participatory research appeared to be useful in assessing workers' exposure when workplace air monitoring is not feasible due to a lack of cooperation from the employer. Several logistical challenges need to be addressed in future biomonitoring studies of electronics workers in Asia in factories where employers are reluctant to track workers' exposure and health.

First evidence of occupational and residential exposure to bisphenols associated with an e-waste dismantling site: A case study in China

Bisphenol A and its structural analogues (BPs) are widely used chemicals in electronics devices. To get insight into the occupational exposure to the full-time employees compared with the residents, urinary BPs in workers dismantling e-waste and in nearby residents were compared. Only 4 BPs among the tested 8 congeners, bisphenol AF (BPAF), bisphenol A, bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol F (BPF), were extensively detected with the detection frequencies of 100%, 99%, 98.7%, 51.3%. The median concentration of bisphenol A was 8.48 ng/mL, followed by BPAF (1.05 ng/mL), BPS (0.115 ng/mL), and BPF (0.110 ng/mL). The 4 detected BPs had a median concentration (Σ4BPs) ranging from 0.950 to 64.5 ng/mL in all volunteers, with a median value of 10.2 ng/mL. Result indicated the median concentration of ∑4BPs in worker's urine was significantly higher (14.2 ng/mL) than those in residents in nearby towns (4.52 ng/mL and 5.37 ng/mL) (p < 0.05), suggesting a BPs' occupational exposure risk related to e-waste dismantling. Besides, urinary ∑4BPs' median concentrations for the employees in family workshops (14.5 ng/mL) were significantly higher than those in plants with centralized management (9.36 ng/mL). Among volunteers, higher ∑4BPs were observed in groups of aged above 50 years, males, or body weight under average with no significant correlations. The estimated daily intake of bisphenol A did not exceed the reference dose (50 μg/kg bw/day) recommended by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. In this research, excess levels of BPs were recorded for the full-time employees in e-waste dismantling sites. Strengthened standards could support public health initiatives for full-time worker protection and reduce take-home BPs to family members.

New Evidence on BPA's Role in Adipose Tissue Development of Proinflammatory Processes and Its Relationship with Obesity

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a xenobiotic with endocrine disruptor properties which interacts with various receptors, eliciting a cellular response. In the plastic industry, BPA is widely used in the production of polycarbonate and epoxy-phenolic resins to provide elastic properties. It can be found in the lining of canned foods, certain plastic containers, thermal printing papers, composite dental fillings, and medical devices, among other things. Therefore, it is a compound that, directly or indirectly, is in daily contact with the human organism. BPA is postulated to be a factor responsible for the global epidemic of obesity and non-communicable chronic diseases, belonging to the obesogenic and diabetogenic group of compounds. Hence, this endocrine disruptor may be responsible for the development of metabolic disorders, promoting in fat cells an increase in proinflammatory pathways and upregulating the expression and release of certain cytokines, such as IL6, IL1β, and TNFα. These, in turn, at a systemic and local level, are associated with a chronic low-grade inflammatory state, which allows the perpetuation of the typical physiological complications of obesity.

Challenges in the Analytical Preparation of a Biological Matrix in Analyses of Endocrine-Disrupting Bisphenols

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are xenobiotics presented in a variety of everyday products that may disrupt the normal activity of hormones. Exposure to bisphenol A as EDC at trace and ultra-trace levels is associated with adverse health effects, and children are recognized as the most vulnerable group to EDCs exposure. In this review, a summary is presented of up-to-date sample preparation methods and instrumental techniques applied for the detection and quantification of bisphenol A and its structural analogues in various biological matrices. Biological matrices such as blood, cell-free blood products, urine, saliva, breast milk, cordial blood, amniotic and semen fluids, as well as sweat and hair, are very complex; therefore, the detection and later quantification of bisphenols at low levels present a real analytical challenge. The most popular analytical approaches include gas and liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, and their enhanced reliability and sensitivity finally allow the separation and detection of bisphenols in biological samples, even as ultra-traces. Liquid/liquid extraction (LLE) and solid-phase extraction (SPE) are still the most common methods for their extraction from biological matrices. However, many modern and environmentally safe microextraction techniques are currently under development. The complexity of biological matrices and low concentrations of analytes are the main issues for the limited identification, as well as understanding the adverse health effects caused by chronical and ubiquitous exposure to bisphenols and its analogues.

Susceptibility of male reproductive system to bisphenol A, an endocrine disruptor: Updates from epidemiological and experimental evidence

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an omnipresent environmental pollutant. Despite being restrictions in-force for its utilization, it is widely being used in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Direct, low-dose, and long-term exposure to BPA is expected when they are used in the packaging of food products and are used as containers for food consumption. Occupationally, workers are typically exposed to BPA at higher levels and for longer periods during the manufacturing process. BPA is a known endocrine disruptor chemical (EDC), that causes male infertility, which has a negative impact on human life from emotional, physical, and societal standpoints. To minimize the use of BPA in numerous consumer products, efforts and regulations are being made. Despite legislative limits in numerous nations, BPA is still found in consumer products. This paper examines BPA's overall male reproductive toxicity, including its impact on the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular (HPT) axis, hormonal homeostasis, testicular steroidogenesis, sperm parameters, reproductive organs, and antioxidant defense system. Furthermore, this paper highlighted the role of non-monotonic dose-response (NMDR) in BPA exposure, which will help to improve the overall understanding of the harmful effects of BPA on the male reproductive system.

New insights into the effect of bisphenol AF exposure on maternal mammary glands at various stages of gestation in mice

Bisphenol AF (BPAF) is the most estrogenic compound among BPA analogs. Mammary glands (MDs) are special organs that undergo repeated cycles of structural development, metabolism, and functional differentiation. Gestation is a sensitive window for MDs. In the present study, plug-positive CD-1 mice were exposed to vehicle (Veh) or 300 μg/kg BPAF through oral gavage every second day during gestation, and maternal MDs were collected from different developmental windows at 9.5, 13.5, and 18.5 d of gestation (gestation day [GD]9.5, GD13.5 and GD18.5). The results showed that gestational BPAF exposure induced a significantly elevated MD density at GD18.5. Non-target metabolomics analysis was used to screen for tyrosine, valine, ornithine, proline, threonine, phenylalanine and asymmetrical dimethylarginine (ADMA) amino acids, which changed significantly at all time points. Furthermore, the mRNA expression levels of genes related to these amino acids also changed significantly. Additionally, amino acid levels in BPAF-treated MGs at GD18.5 were related to the serum ammonia concentration of the corresponding offspring. These results provide a comprehensive view of the adverse effects of BPAF exposure during gestation on the maternal MG structure and function, which may affect milk components during lactation. Moreover, higher amino acids content may lead to amino acid imbalance or hyperammonemia in newborns.

Combination of Soxhlet extraction and catalytic hydrodebromination for remediation of tetrabromobisphenol A contaminated soil

As a widely used brominated flame retardants (BFRs), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) has been detected in various environmental matrices and is known to cause negative effects on both the environment and human health. In this study, a combined method was developed for the abatement of TBBPA contaminated soil based on successive steps of solvent extraction (SE) and catalytic hydrodebromination (HDB) over Pd/C. The results showed that TBBPA could be efficiently extracted from the TBBPA contaminated soil with polar solvents. Subsequently, TBBPA could be completely hydrodebrominated over Pd/C in ethanol, via multistep ultimately yielding bisphenol A. Moreover, NaOH, NH₃H₂O, and Et₃N were more favorable to promote the HDB of 4-TBBPA over Pd/C, and 100% bromide atom removal ratio of TBBPA was achieved within 40 min when [NaOH]₀/[organic-Br]₀ was more than 1.10 in ethanol. However, the catalytic activity of Pd/C decreased with the repeated use in ethanol. To study the mechanism for this phenomenon, fresh and used catalysts were analyzed by characterization techniques including scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS). It was found that the deactivation of Pd/C catalyst caused by the gradual accumulation of NaBr could be recovered by washing with water. On the basis of these studies, an effective and practical system for the combined method of SE and catalytic HDB over Pd/C was developed to dispose BFRs contaminated soils.

Nanoscale zerovalent copper (nZVC) catalyzed environmental remediation of organic and inorganic contaminants: A review

Over the past decade, the nano zerovalent copper has emerged as an effective nano-catalyst for the environment remediation processes due to its ease of synthesis, low cost, controllable particle size and high reactivity despite its release during the remediation process and related concentration dependent toxicities. However, the improvised techniques involving the use of supports or immobilizer for the synthesis of Cu⁰ has significantly increased its stability and motivated the researchers to explore the applicability of Cu⁰ for the environment remediation processes, which is evident from access to numerous reports on nano zerovalent copper mediated remediation of contaminants. Initially, this review allows the understanding of the various resources used to synthesize zerovalent copper nanomaterial and the structure of Cu⁰ nanoparticles, followed by focus on the reaction mechanism and the species involved in the contaminant remediation process. The studies comprehensively presented the application of nano zerovalent copper for remediation of organic/inorganic contaminants in combination with various oxidizing and reducing agents under oxic and anoxic conditions. Further, it was evaluated that the immobilizers or support combined with various irradiation sources originates a synergistic effect and have a significant effect on the stability and the redox properties of nZVC in the remediation process. Therefore, the review proposed that the future scope of research should include rigorous focus on deriving an exact mechanism for synergistic effect for the removal of contaminants by supported nZVC.

Improved method for the determination of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in urine of school-age children using microliquid-liquid extraction and UHPLC-MS/MS

The presence of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in our daily life is increasing every day and, by extension, human exposure and the consequences thereof. Among these substances are bisphenols and parabens. Urine is used to analyze the exposure. The determination of 12 bisphenol homologues and 6 parabens is proposed. A procedure based on a method previously developed by our research group in 2014 is improved. The extraction yield is higher, because the new protocol is 5 times more efficient. Also, a comparison between calibration with pure standards and matrix calibration, to calculate the matrix effect, was also made. A high grade of matrix effect for all analytes was observed. In terms of validation, the limits of detection (LOD) were between 0.03 and 0.3 ng mL^-1 and limits of quantification (LOQ) 0.1 to 1.0 ng mL^-1, respectively, and the recovery is higher than 86.4% and lower than 113.6%, with a RSD lower than 13.5% in all cases. A methodology for accurate and sensitive quantification of bisphenol homologues together with parabens in human urine using UHPLC-MS/MS was developed. The method was successfully applied to 30 urine samples from children.

Application of Solid-Phase Extraction and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection to Analyze Eleven Bisphenols in Amniotic Fluid Samples Collected during Amniocentesis

Amniocentesis involves taking a sample of the amniotic fluid in order to perform a karyotype test and diagnose any genetic defects that may affect the fetus. Amniotic fluid has been collected from patients with an indication for amniocentesis in the 15–26th week of pregnancy. A simple and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) method for identification and quantification of eleven selected bisphenols in amniotic fluid samples is proposed. The proposed method involved protein precipitation using acetonitrile, and next the extraction and concentration of analytes by solid-phase extraction (SPE). The solid-phase extraction (SPE) procedure with application of Oasis HLB SPE columns performed well for the majority of the analytes, with recoveries in the range of 67–121% and relative standard deviations (RSD%) less than 16%. The limits of detection (LODs) and quantification (LOQs) of all the investigated analytes were in the range of 0.8–2.5 ng mL⁻¹ and 2.4–7.5 ng mL⁻¹ (curves constructed in methanol) and 1.1–5.2 ng mL⁻¹ and 3.2–15.6 ng mL⁻¹ (curves constructed in the amniotic fluid), respectively. The method was validated at the following two concentration levels: 10 ng mL⁻¹ (2 × LOQ) and 20 ng mL⁻¹ (4 LOQ). The results confirm the validity of the SPE procedure and HPLC-FLD method for identification and quantification of bisphenols in amniotic fluid samples collected during an amniocentesis. The result obtained show that HPLC-FLD is a useful method for determination of bisphenol residues at nanogram per milliliter concentrations in amniotic fluid samples. Residues of five analytes (BADGE·2H₂O, BPAF, BADGE, BADGE·H₂O·HCl and BADGE·2HCl) were detected in amniotic fluid samples. Additionally, the harmfulness of bisphenols as potential pathogens that may cause karyotype disorders and contribute to preterm birth was estimated.

Female Reproductive Health and Exposure to Phthalates and Bisphenol A: A Cross Sectional Study

The xenoestrogenicity of some plasticisers (phthalates and bisphenol A) is documented in the literature and may pose a risk to female reproductive health. The aim of this study was to assess exposure to six phthalates. This was achieved by measuring their respective metabolites (mono-ethylphthalate (MEP); mono-n-butylphthalate (MnBP); mono-n-ottylphthalate (MnOP); and monobenzylphthalate (MBzP)), as well as the sum of two of the diethyl-hexyl phthalate metabolites-(∑DEHP) and bisphenol A (BPA) in a female population with infertility problems, and by conducting a correlation analysis between infertility factors, work activities, and lifestyle habits, in order to formulate a causal hypothesis. A cross-sectional epidemiological study was carried out and women under 43 years of age were recruited from an assisted reproduction technology (ART) center; the sample of 186 women was given a specific questionnaire and a spot urine sample was collected. Phthalate metabolites and urinary BPA were analyzed by HPLC/MS/MS. The results showed significantly higher mean values for MEP in women with recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) (820.5 ± 1929.5 µg/g of creatinine) and idiopathic infertility (230.0 ± 794.2 µg/g of creatinine) than in women with other infertility factors (76.9 ± 171.8 µg/g of creatinine). Similarly, for MnOP levels, women with idiopathic infertility (2.95 ± 3.44 µg/g of creatinine) showed significantly higher values than women with the other infertility factors taken together (1.35 ± 2.05 µg/g of creatinine). Women with tubal factors of infertility, RPL, and endocrine dysfunctions show higher values of DEHP (p = 0.032). Considering occupations, women working in commerce showed more than twice as much urinary BPA levels (1.10 ± 0.48 µg/g of creatinine) compared to women working in other industries (0.45 ± 0.35 µg/g of creatinine). The presence of significantly higher values of certain phthalates, DEHP in particular, especially in women with RPL and idiopathic infertility, suggests a possible involvement of these compounds as competing factors in reproductive issues. The study of sources of exposure suggested that the working activity in trade, as a casher in particular, represents a major one for BPA (p = 0.015).

Application of Solid Phase Extraction and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection to Analyze Bisphenol A Bis (2,3-Dihydroxypropyl) Ether (BADGE 2H2O), Bisphenol F (BPF), and Bisphenol E (BPE) in Human Urine Samples

In this study, we propose a simple, cost-effective, and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography method with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) for the simultaneous determination of the three bisphenols (BPs): bisphenol A bis (2,3-dihydroxypropyl) ether (BADGE 2H2O), bisphenol F (BPF), and bisphenol E (BPE) in human urine samples. The dispersive solid phase extraction (d-SPE) coupled with solid phase extraction (SPE) procedure performed well for the analytes with recoveries in the range of 74.3-86.5% and relative standard deviations (RSD%) less than 10%. The limits of quantification (LOQs) for all investigated analytes were in the range of 11.42-22.35 ng mL-1. The method was validated at three concentration levels (1 × LOQ, 1.5 × LOQ, and 3 LOQ). During the bisphenols HPLC-FLD analysis, from 6 min a reinforcement (10 or 12) was used, therefore analytes might be identified in the small volume human urine samples. The results demonstrated clearly that the approach developed provides reliable, simple, and rapid quantification and identification of three bisphenols in a urine matrix and could be used for monitoring these analytes.