Lipase-catalyzed synthesis of canola phytosterols oleate esters as cholesterol lowering agents

Preparation of functional oils rich in phytosterol esters and diacylglycerols by enzymatic transesterification

Phytosterol esters (PEs) and diacylglycerols (DAGs) have various health benefits in humans. In this study, PEs and DAGs were synthesized by lipase-catalyzed transesterification between a natural oil and phytosterols. First, commercial lipases were screened for transesterification and were further verified using multiple-ligand molecular docking. AYS "Amano" (a lipase from Candida rugosa) was found to be the optimum lipase. Subsequently, the enzymatic transesterification conditions were optimized. The optimized conditions were determined to be a 1:2 M ratio of phytosterols to oil, 100 mmol/L phytosterols, and 9 % AYS "Amano", and 50 °C for 24 h in 20 mL n-hexane. Under these conditions, over 70 % of phytosterols were converted to PEs. In this study, an efficient enzymatic process was developed to produce value-added functional oils rich in PEs and DAGs, with PEs content ≥ 31.6 %, DAGs content ≥ 11.2 %, acid value ≤ 0.91 mg KOH/g, and peroxide value ≤ 2.38 mmol/kg.

Thermo-oxidative stability and safety of new acylglycerols with stigmasterol residue: Effects of fatty acids saturation and position in the glycerol backbone

The safety and thermoxidative stability of new diacyl-stigmasterylcarbonoyl-sn-glycerols (DAStGs) with two molecules of palmitic or oleic acids and one molecule of stigmasterol at the sn-2 or sn-3 position were studied. After heating to 60 °C, the compounds with stigmasterol at the sn-2 position were more stable than those with stigmasterol at the sn-3 position. The lowest level of degradation of stigmasterol after heating to 180 °C was detected for both compounds with oleic acid, followed by the samples with palmitic acid. The high content of SOPs, especially triolSt, as well as the high level of dimers showed the most effect on the cytotoxicity of DAStGs heated at both temperatures. DAStGs with oleic acid at sn-1,3 and stigmasterol at sn-2 position were the most stable compounds. Both oleic acid and the location of stigmasterol in the middle of the glycerol molecule play an important role in increasing the thermoxidative stability of stigmasterol.

Lipases as Effective Green Biocatalysts for Phytosterol Esters’ Production: A Review

Lipases are versatile enzymes widely used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. They are green biocatalysts with a high potential for industrial use compared to traditional chemical methods. In recent years, lipases have been used to synthesize a wide variety of molecules of industrial interest, and extraordinary results have been reported. In this sense, this review describes the important role of lipases in the synthesis of phytosterol esters, which have attracted the scientific community’s attention due to their beneficial effects on health. A systematic search for articles and patents published in the last 20 years with the terms “phytosterol AND esters AND lipase” was carried out using the Scopus, Web of Science, Scielo, and Google Scholar databases, and the results showed that Candida rugosa lipases are the most relevant biocatalysts for the production of phytosterol esters, being used in more than 50% of the studies. The optimal temperature and time for the enzymatic synthesis of phytosterol esters mainly ranged from 30 to 101 °C and from 1 to 72 h. The esterification yield was greater than 90% for most analyzed studies. Therefore, this manuscript presents the new technological approaches and the gaps that need to be filled by future studies so that the enzymatic synthesis of phytosterol esters is widely developed.

Enzymatic preparation of phytosterol esters with fatty acids from high-oleic sunflower seed oil using response surface methodology

Phytosterol esters are functional compounds that can effectively reduce plasma cholesterol concentration, and have wide applications in the food industry. In this study, a simple and efficient enzymatic method was successfully applied to synthesize phytosterol oleic acid esters with fatty acids from high-oleic sunflower seed oil. Among the tested lipases, Candida rugosa lipase (CRL) exhibited higher catalytic activity in the esterification of phytosterols with fatty acids (oleic acid 84%) from high-oleic sunflower seed oil. Box-Behnken design and response surface methodology were used to investigate the influence of reaction factors on the conversion of phytosterols. The maximum conversion of phytosterols (96.8%) and yield of phytosterol esters (92%) could be obtained under optimal conditions: reaction temperature 50 °C, a molar ratio of phytosterols to fatty acids at 1 : 2.3, enzyme loading of 5.8%, isooctane volume of 2 mL and reaction time of 2 h. It was noteworthy that this enzymatic esterification method indeed expended a much shorter reaction time (2 h) than that observed in previous reports. In general, the enzymatic preparation of phytosterol oleic acid esters with fatty acids from high-oleic sunflower seed oil will be a simple and rapid method for producing unsaturated fatty acid esters of phytosterol with both higher oil solubility and oxidative stability, which is beneficial as functional food ingredients.

A review on chemical and physical modifications of phytosterols and their influence on bioavailability and safety

Phytosterols have been shown to lower cholesterol levels and to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and other biological activities. However, the high melting point and poor solubility limit their bioavailability and practical application. It is advantageous to modify phytosterols chemically and physically. This article reviews and discusses the chemical and physical modifications of phytosterols, as well as their effects on the bioavailability and possible toxicity in vivo. The current research on chemical modifications is mainly focused on esterification to increase the oil solubility and water solubility. For physical modifications (mainly microencapsulation), there are biopolymer-based, surfactant-based and lipid-based nanocarriers. Both chemical and physical modifications of phytosterols can effectively increase the absorption and bioavailability. The safety of modified phytosterols is also an important issue. Phytosterol esters are generally considered to be safe. However, phytosterol oxides, which may be produced during the synthesis of phytosterol esters, have shown toxicity in animal models. The toxicity of nanocarriers also needs further studies.

Sustainable and Green Synthesis of Stanol Esters from Oil Wastes

The recombinant lipase ofOphiostoma piceae (OPEr) is characterized by its prominent sterol esterase activity. The protein was immobilized on magnetic nanoparticles, giving four enzyme variants that have been tested in solvent-free transesterification of methyl oleate and sitostanol. The yields of stanol esters reached 85%, and the catalysts can be reused. Stanol esters were also obtained in a two-step cascade reaction; a mixture of fatty acid methyl esters was enzymatically synthesized from cooking oil wastes and then used for stanol transesterification. An 85% conversion was achieved in 2 h from the second cycle onward, maintaining the activity over 5 cycles. The biocatalysts can be safely used since they don't release toxic compounds for HeLa and A549 cell lines. These procedures comply with the principles of green chemistry and contribute to the sustainable production of these nutraceuticals from secondary raw materials, like the lipid fraction from industrial or agricultural residues.

Phytyl fatty acid esters in vegetables pose a risk for patients suffering from Refsum's disease

Patients suffering from Refsum’s disease show mutations in the enzyme necessary for the degradation of phytanic acid. Accumulation of this tetramethyl-branched fatty acid in inner organs leads to severe neurological and cardiac dysfunctions which can even result in death. Thus, patients with Refsum’s disease have to follow a specific diet resigning foods with high levels of phytanic acid and trans-phytol like products from ruminant animals with a tolerable daily intake (TDI) of ≤ 10 mg/d. We recently reported the occurrence of phytyl fatty acid esters (PFAE, trans-phytol esterified with a fatty acid) in bell pepper with trans-phytol amounts of up to 5.4 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW). In this study we carried out in vitro-digestion experiments of PFAE with artificial digestion fluids. Our results demonstrate that PFAE actually are a source for bioavailable trans-phytol and thus add to the TDI. Eating only one portion of bell pepper (∼150 g) could therefore lead to exploitation of the TDI of up to 81%. Analysis of additional vegetable matrices showed that also rocket salad with up to 4.2 mg/100 g FW trans-phytol bound in PFAE represents a risk-relevant food for patients with Refsum’s disease and should therefore be taken into account.

Phytyl Fatty Acid Esters in the Pulp of Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum)

Phytyl fatty acid esters (PFAE) are esters of fatty acids with the isoprenoid alcohol phytol (3,7R,11R,15-tetramethylhexadec-2E-enol). In this study, PFAE were identified and quantified in bell pepper using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). All red (n = 14) and yellow (n = 6) samples contained six or seven PFAE at 0.9-11.2 mg/100 g fresh weight. By contrast, PFAE were not detected in green bell pepper samples (n = 3). PFAE might eventually be a source for bioavailable phytol, which can be transformed into phytanic acid by humans. Phytanic acid cannot be properly degraded by patients who suffer from Refsum's disease (tolerable daily intake (TDI) ≤ 10 mg of phytanic acid). The phytol moiety of the PFAE (0.4-5.4 mg/100 g fresh weight) would contribute up to ∼50% to the TDI with the consumption of only one portion of bell pepper fruit pulp.

Novel Synthesis of Phytosterol Ester from Soybean Sterol and Acetic Anhydride

Phytosterols are important bioactive compounds which have several health benefits including reduction of serum cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular diseases. The most widely used method in the synthesis of its ester analogous form is the use of catalysts and solvents. These methods have been found to present some safety and health concern. In this paper, an alternative method of synthesizing phytosterol ester from soybean sterol and acetic anhydride was investigated. Process parameters such as mole ratio, temperature and time were optimized. The structure and physicochemical properties of phytosterol acetic ester were analyzed. By the use of gas chromatography, the mole ratio of soybean sterol and acetic anhydride needed for optimum esterification rate of 99.4% was 1:1 at 135 °C for 1.5 h. FTIR spectra confirmed the formation of phytosterol ester with strong absorption peaks at 1732 and 1250 cm(-1) , which corresponds to the stretching vibration of C=O and C-O-C, respectively. These peaks could be attributed to the formation of ester links which resulted from the reaction between the hydroxyl group of soybean sterol and the carbonyl group of acetic anhydride. This paper provides a better alternative to the synthesis of phytosterol ester without catalyst and solvent residues, which may have potential application in the food, health-care food, and pharmaceutical industries.

Method Development for the Determination of Free and Esterified Sterols in Button Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)

Ergosterol is the major sterol in button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) and can occur as free alcohol or esterified with fatty acids (ergosteryl esters). In this study, gas chromatography with mass spectrometry in the selected ion monitoring mode (GC/MS-SIM) was used to determine ergosterol and ergosteryl esters as well as other sterols and steryl esters in button mushrooms. Different quality control measures were established and sample preparation procedures were compared to prevent the formation of artifacts and the degradation of ergosteryl esters. The final method was then used for the determination of ergosterol (443 ± 44 mg/100 g dry matter (d.m.)) and esterified ergosterol (12 ± 6 mg/100 g d.m.) in button mushroom samples (n = 4). While the free sterol fraction was vastly dominated by ergosterol (∼90% of five sterols in total), the steryl ester fraction was more diversified (nine sterols in total, ergosterol ∼55%) and consisted primarily of linoleic acid esters.

Synthesis of cholesterol-reducing sterol esters by enzymatic catalysis in bio-based solvents or solvent-free

Enzymatic synthesis of a β-sitosterol ester under solvent free conditions and bio-based solvents was compared with conventional solvents.

Production of a sterol esterase from Ophiostoma piceae in batch and fed-batch bioprocesses using different Pichia pastoris phenotypes as cell factory

The potential biotechnological applications for the Ophiostoma piceae sterol esterase (OPE) are conditioned to the availability of high enzyme amounts at low prices. This enzyme is a versatile biocatalyst with different biotechnological applications. In this work a systematic study on its heterologous production in different Pichia pastoris strains and operational strategies is presented. The best results were obtained using an AOX1 defective yeast strain in a fed-batch bioprocess using methanol as inducer substrate at a set point of 2.5 g L(-1) and sorbitol as cosubstrate by means of a preprogramed exponential feeding rate at a μ = 0.02 h(-1) , reaching 30 U mL(-1) of enzyme and a volumetric productivity of 403.5 U L(-1) h(-1) . These values are twofold higher than those obtained with a Mut(+) phenotype using methanol a sole carbon source. OPE was the main protein secreted by the yeast, 55% for Mut(s) versus 25% for Mut(+.)

Organic solvent tolerant lipases and applications

Lipases are a group of enzymes naturally endowed with the property of performing reactions in aqueous as well as organic solvents. The esterification reactions using lipase(s) could be performed in water-restricted organic media as organic solvent(s) not only improve(s) the solubility of substrate and reactant in reaction mixture but also permit(s) the reaction in the reverse direction, and often it is easy to recover the product in organic phase in two-phase equilibrium systems. The use of organic solvent tolerant lipase in organic media has exhibited many advantages: increased activity and stability, regiospecificity and stereoselectivity, higher solubility of substrate, ease of products recovery, and ability to shift the reaction equilibrium toward synthetic direction. Therefore the search for organic solvent tolerant enzymes has been an extensive area of research. A variety of fatty acid esters are now being produced commercially using immobilized lipase in nonaqueous solvents. This review describes the organic tolerance and industrial application of lipases. The main emphasis is to study the nature of organic solvent tolerant lipases. Also, the potential industrial applications that make lipases the biocatalysts of choice for the present and future have been presented.

Direct analysis of sterols by derivatization matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and tandem mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Free sterols are neutral molecules that are difficult to analyze by MALDI or ESI and their molecular ions easily fragment. In order to increase their ionization efficiency and selectivity, sterols were derivatized by different reagents.

METHODS

Selected sterols were converted into their corresponding picolinyl esters, N-methylpyridyl ethers and sulphated esters. The derivatives were optimized for MALDI-TOFMS analysis through proper selection of the matrix. MALDI-TOF/TOF experiments were carried out to study the fragmentation pathways of the derivatives and their use in structural elucidation. Lipid extracts from mussels were used as test samples for MALDI analysis of sterols in biological samples also analyzed by GC/MS for comparison.

RESULTS

Sterol picolinyl esters were identified as sodiated adducts [M+Na](+) and the signal significantly enhanced after addition of sodium acetate (20 mM). Sterol N-methylpyridyl ethers were easily detected as [M](+) while sulphated sterols were best detected as [M-H](-). The ester bonds of picolinyl and sulphated esters easily cleaved in MS/MS resulting in diagnostic derivative fragments at m/z 146.03 and 96.89, respectively. Cleavage of the ether bond of N-methylpyridyl ethers gave a diagnostic fragment ion at m/z 110.04. Sterol profiles in mussels obtained by MALDI-TOFMS were in close agreement with those obtained by GC/MS. Two sterols (cholesterol and β-sitosterol) were selected for quantification as their sulphated and picolinyl esters. Calibration curves gave excellent correlation coefficients.

CONCLUSIONS

Suitable matrices for picolinyl esters are DHB and THAP, for N-methylpyridyl ethers THAP, and for sulphated esters p-nitroaniline and dithranol. Using cholesterol, the limits of detection (LODs) for sulphated esters were 0.2 µg/mL and for picolinyl esters, 1.5 µg/mL. N-Methylpyridyl ethers were found unsuitable for sterol quantitation.

An innovative auto-catalytic esterification for the production of phytosterol esters: experiment and kinetics

A safe, practicable and environmental friendly method was developed to synthesize phytosterol esters from phytosterols and long-chain fatty acids without adding any catalyst or solvent.

Synthesis of phytosteryl ester containing pinolenic acid in a solvent-free system using immobilized Candida rugosa lipase

Phytosteryl ester synthesized with pinolenic acid (PLA) from pine nut oil is expected to have features of both phytosterol and PLA. In this study, lipase from Candida rugosa (CRL) was immobilized and then used to optimize conditions for synthesis of phytosteryl ester containing PLA. Lewatit VP OC 1600, a macroporous hydrophobic resin, was selected as the best carrier, and the optimum condition for the immobilization of CRL was established. With immobilized CRL prepared, synthesis of phytosteryl ester with fatty acid from pine nut oil was carried out. Parameters investigated were temperature, molar ratio (phytosterol to fatty acid), enzyme loading, and vacuum. Optimum conditions for synthesis of phytosteryl ester were a temperature of 60 °C, molar ratio of 1:4, enzyme loading of 10% (based on the total weight of the substrate), and pressure of 80 kPa. The maximum conversion of phytosteryl ester was ca. 93 mol % at the optimum condition.

Enzymatic synthesis of phytosteryl docosahexaneates and evaluation of their anti-atherogenic effects in apo-E deficient mice

Phytosterols have attracted much attention in recent years due to their health benefits, such as cholesterol lowering, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenicity, and anti-cancer potential. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has been demonstrated to possess cardioprotective and immune-enhancing effects. Esterification of phytosterols with DHA may render improved physiochemical properties such as solubility, miscibility, oxidative stability and hence bioactivity and bioavailability. Thus, phytosteryl docosahexaneates (PS-DHA) may offer both the benefits of phytosterols and DHA, possibly in a synergistic manner. Here, we describe a method for enzymatic synthesis of phytosteryl docosahexaneates and evaluation of metabolic and cardiovascular benefits in apo-E deficient (apo E-KO) mice. The structures of phytosteryl docosahexaneates were confirmed by infrared (IR) and high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) using both normal and reverse phase chromatography. Apo E-KO mice were fed with an atherogenic diet containing 2% (w/w) PS-DHA for 7 weeks. Plasma lipid levels and the extent and complexity of atherosclerotic lesions were examined and compared with those in the control group. The PS-DHA-treated mice had significantly lower plasma cholesterol levels and three times smaller atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic roots. This pilot study suggests cardiovascular benefits for PS-DHA. Further experimental and clinical studies are needed to confirm such benefits of PS-DHA.

Plant lipases: partial purification of Carica papaya lipase

Lipases from plants have very interesting features for application in different fields. This chapter provides an overview on some of the most important aspects of plant lipases, such as sources, applications, physiological functions, and specificities. Lipases from laticifers and particularly Carica papaya lipase (CPL) have emerged as a versatile autoimmobilized biocatalyst. However, to get a better understanding of CPL biocatalytic properties, the isolation and purification of individual C. papaya lipolytic enzymes become necessary. In this chapter, a practical protocol for partial purification of the latex-associated lipolytic activity from C. papaya is given.

Novel synthesis of steryl esters from phytosterols and amino Acid

The feasibility of esterification of phytosterol with the amino acid l-glutamic acid was established. The influence of various organic solvents was investigated, and n-butanol was selected as an ideal solvent for phytosteryl esters synthesis with l-glutamic acid. The reaction conditions were further optimized by orthogonal experiments, and a 92.3% degree of esterification was obtained when optimum conditions were used. FT-IR spectral, GC-MS, and NMR analyses were adopted to determine the steryl esters of l-glutamic acid. The FT-IR spectrum indicated the presence of ester bonds in the phytosteryl esters with l-glutamic acid, and on the basis of the detailed mass spectrography analysis, GC-MS and NMR offered an efficient and reliable way to confirm the steryl esters. This novel synthesis approach of phytosteryl esters with amino acid supplied a promising alternative to the substrate on esterification of phytosterols and thus can be readily applied to further studies of functional food ingredients of phytosteryl esters.