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Nimkande VD, Krishnamurthi K, Bafana A. Potential of Antarctic lipase from Acinetobacter johnsonii Ant12 for treatment of lipid-rich wastewater: screening, production, properties and applications. Biodegradation 2023; 34:549-566. [PMID: 37354270 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-023-10041-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/26/2023]
Abstract
The present study aimed to screen and optimize lipase production by the Antarctic strain Acinetobacter johnsonii Ant12 for lipid-rich wastewater treatment. Lipase production was successfully enhanced threefold through optimization of culture conditions. The optimum crude lipase activity was observed at 50 °C with high stability in a wide temperature range. The lipase also exhibited high activity and stability in the presence of solvents, metal ions, and surfactants. The crude lipase was used for the treatment of lipid-rich wastewater, which poses a significant challenge, as traditional removal methods are often inefficient or non-eco-friendly. In this study, bioaugmentation with Ant12 resulted in substantial lipid reduction in synthetic as well as real-world wastewater. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that lipid concentration and time were the most significant factors influencing lipid degradation. Bioaugmentation of real-world wastewater with Ant12 cells resulted in 84% removal of lipids in 72 h, while its crude lipase degraded 73.7% of lipids after 24 h. Thus, the specific rate of lipid degradation was higher for crude lipase (0.095/h) than the whole cell treatment (0.031/h). Economic analysis revealed that crude lipase production was much cheaper, faster and more eco-friendly than purified or partially purified lipase production, which justifies its use in wastewater treatment. The high activity of enzyme also implicates its application as a detergent additive. In our knowledge, it is the first study to establish A. johnsonii isolate from Antarctica for lipid-rich wastewater treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay D Nimkande
- Health and Toxicity Cell, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440020, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Kannan Krishnamurthi
- Health and Toxicity Cell, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440020, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Amit Bafana
- Health and Toxicity Cell, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440020, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India.
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Öten AM, Atak E, Taktak Karaca B, Fırtına S, Kutlu A. Discussing the roles of proline and glycine from the perspective of cold adaptation in lipases and cellulases. BIOCATAL BIOTRANSFOR 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/10242422.2022.2124111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Melih Öten
- Biology Education Center, Faculty of Science and Technology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Evren Atak
- Bioinformatics and System Biology, Bioengineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Banu Taktak Karaca
- Molecular Biology & Genetics Department, Faculty of Natural Science and Engineering, Atlas University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sinem Fırtına
- Bioinformatics & Genetics, Faculty of Natural Science and Engineering, İstinye University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Aslı Kutlu
- Bioinformatics & Genetics, Faculty of Natural Science and Engineering, İstinye University, Istanbul, Turkey
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Identification of Exoenzymes Secreted by Entomopathogenic Fungus Beauveria pseudobassiana RGM 2184 and Their Effect on the Degradation of Cocoons and Pupae of Quarantine Pest Lobesia botrana. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8101083. [PMID: 36294649 PMCID: PMC9605004 DOI: 10.3390/jof8101083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Beauveria pseudobassiana RGM 2184 has shown 80% maximum efficacy against the pest Lobesia botrana in the autumn and winter seasons. This suggests that the strain possesses an interesting battery of enzymes that are cold-adapted to penetrate the thick and hydrophobic cocoon of L. botrana. In this study, screening of the proteolytic, lipolytic, and chitinolytic activity of enzyme extracts secreted by the RGM 2184 strain was carried out in various culture media. The enzyme extracts with the highest activity were subjected to zymography and mass spectrometry. These analyses allowed the identification of two proteases, two lipases, and three chitinases. Comparative analysis indicated that the degree of similarity between these enzymes was substantially reduced when the highest degree of taxonomic relatedness between RGM 2184 and the entomopathogenic fungus strain was at the family level. These results suggest that there is a wide variety of exoenzymes in entomopathogenic fungi species belonging to the order Hypocreales. On the other hand, exoenzyme extract exposure of cocoons and pupae of L. botrana provoked damage at 10 °C. Additionally, an analysis of the amino acid composition of the RGM 2184 exoenzyme grouped them close to the cold-adapted protein cluster. These results support the use of this strain to control pests in autumn and winter. Additionally, these antecedents can form a scaffold for the future characterization of these exoenzymes along with the optimization of the strain’s biocontrol ability by overexpressing them.
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Thermostable lipases and their dynamics of improved enzymatic properties. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:7069-7094. [PMID: 34487207 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11520-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/31/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Thermal stability is one of the most desirable characteristics in the search for novel lipases. The search for thermophilic microorganisms for synthesising functional enzyme biocatalysts with the ability to withstand high temperature, and capacity to maintain their native state in extreme conditions opens up new opportunities for their biotechnological applications. Thermophilic organisms are one of the most favoured organisms, whose distinctive characteristics are extremely related to their cellular constituent particularly biologically active proteins. Modifications on the enzyme structure are critical in optimizing the stability of enzyme to thermophilic conditions. Thermostable lipases are one of the most favourable enzymes used in food industries, pharmaceutical field, and actively been studied as potential biocatalyst in biodiesel production and other biotechnology application. Particularly, there is a trade-off between the use of enzymes in high concentration of organic solvents and product generation. Enhancement of the enzyme stability needs to be achieved for them to maintain their enzymatic activity regardless the environment. Various approaches on protein modification applied since decades ago conveyed a better understanding on how to improve the enzymatic properties in thermophilic bacteria. In fact, preliminary approach using advanced computational analysis is practically conducted before any modification is being performed experimentally. Apart from that, isolation of novel extremozymes from various microorganisms are offering great frontier in explaining the crucial native interaction within the molecules which could help in protein engineering. In this review, the thermostability prospect of lipases and the utility of protein engineering insights into achieving functional industrial usefulness at their high temperature habitat are highlighted. Similarly, the underlying thermodynamic and structural basis that defines the forces that stabilize these thermostable lipase is discussed. KEY POINTS: • The dynamics of lipases contributes to their non-covalent interactions and structural stability. • Thermostability can be enhanced by well-established genetic tools for improved kinetic efficiency. • Molecular dynamics greatly provides structure-function insights on thermodynamics of lipase.
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Xiang M, Wang L, Yan Q, Jiang Z, Yang S. Heterologous expression and biochemical characterization of a cold-active lipase from Rhizopus microsporus suitable for oleate synthesis and bread making. Biotechnol Lett 2021; 43:1921-1932. [PMID: 34302564 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-021-03167-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Cold-active lipases which show high specific activity at low temperatures are attractive in industrial applications in terms of product stability and energy saving. We aimed to identify novel cold-active lipase suitable for oleates synthesis and bread making. RESULTS A novel lipase gene (RmLipA) from Rhizopus microsporus was cloned and heterologously expressed in Pichia pastoris. The encoding sequence displayed 75% identity to the lipase from R. niveus. The highest extracellular lipase activity of 7931 U/mL was achieved in a 5-L fermentation. The recombinant enzyme (RmLipA) was optimally active at pH 8.0 and 20-25 °C, respectively, and stable over a wide pH range of 2.0-11.0. The enzyme was a cold-active lipase, exhibiting > 80% of its maximal activity at 0 °C. RmLipA was a sn-1,3 regioselective lipase, and preferred to hydrolyze pNP esters and triglycerides with relatively long chain fatty acids. RmLipA synthesized various oleates using oleic acid and different alcohols as substrates (> 95%). Moreover, it significantly improved the quality of bread by increasing its specific volume (21.7%) and decreasing its crumb firmness (28.6%). CONCLUSIONS A novel cold-active lipase gene from R. microsporus was identified, and its application potentials were evaluated. RmLipA should be a potential candidate in oleates synthesis and bread making industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Xiang
- College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Ling Wang
- College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Qiaojuan Yan
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Zhengqiang Jiang
- College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Shaoqing Yang
- College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China.
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Duarte AWF, Bonugli-Santos RC, Ferrarezi Duarte AL, Gomes E, Sette LD. Statistical experimental design applied to extracellular lipase production by the marine Antarctic yeast Leucosporidium scottii CRM 728. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2021.101954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Cold Active Lipases: Biocatalytic Tools for Greener Technology. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2021; 193:2245-2266. [PMID: 33544363 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-021-03516-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Lipases are enzymes that catalyze the ester bond hydrolysis in triglycerides with the release of fatty acids, mono- and diglycerides, and glycerol. The microbial lipases account for $400 million market size in 2017 and it is expected to reach $590 million by 2023. Many biotechnological processes are expedited at high temperatures and hence much research is dealt with thermostable enzymes. Cold active lipases are now gaining importance in the detergent, synthesis of chiral intermediates and frail/fragile compounds, and food and pharmaceutical industries. In addition, they consume less energy since they are active at low temperatures. These cold active lipases have not been commercially exploited so far compared to mesophilic and thermophilc lipases. Cold active lipases are distributed in microbes found at low temperatures. Only a few microbes were studied for the production of these enzymes. These cold-adapted enzymes show increased flexibility of their structures in response to freezing effect of the cold habitats. This review presents an update on cold-active lipases from microbial sources along with some structural features justifying high enzyme activity at low temperature. In addition, recent achievements on their use in various industries will also be discussed.
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Zucconi L, Canini F, Temporiti ME, Tosi S. Extracellular Enzymes and Bioactive Compounds from Antarctic Terrestrial Fungi for Bioprospecting. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17186459. [PMID: 32899827 PMCID: PMC7558612 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17186459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Antarctica, one of the harshest environments in the world, has been successfully colonized by extremophilic, psychrophilic, and psychrotolerant microorganisms, facing a range of extreme conditions. Fungi are the most diverse taxon in the Antarctic ecosystems, including soils. Genetic adaptation to this environment results in the synthesis of a range of metabolites, with different functional roles in relation to the biotic and abiotic environmental factors, some of which with new biological properties of potential biotechnological interest. An overview on the production of cold-adapted enzymes and other bioactive secondary metabolites from filamentous fungi and yeasts isolated from Antarctic soils is here provided and considerations on their ecological significance are reported. A great number of researches have been carried out to date, based on cultural approaches. More recently, metagenomics approaches are expected to increase our knowledge on metabolic potential of these organisms, leading to the characterization of unculturable taxa. The search on fungi in Antarctica deserves to be improved, since it may represent a useful strategy for finding new metabolic pathways and, consequently, new bioactive compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Zucconi
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Largo dell’Università snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
- Correspondence: (L.Z.); (F.C.); Tel.: +39-328-2741247 (L.Z.); +39-347-9288247 (F.C.)
| | - Fabiana Canini
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Largo dell’Università snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
- Correspondence: (L.Z.); (F.C.); Tel.: +39-328-2741247 (L.Z.); +39-347-9288247 (F.C.)
| | - Marta Elisabetta Temporiti
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Pavia, via S. Epifanio 14, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (M.E.T.); (S.T.)
| | - Solveig Tosi
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Pavia, via S. Epifanio 14, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (M.E.T.); (S.T.)
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Expression and characterization of a CALB-type lipase from Sporisorium reilianum SRZ2 and its potential in short-chain flavor ester synthesis. Front Chem Sci Eng 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11705-019-1889-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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10
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Enzymes from Marine Polar Regions and Their Biotechnological Applications. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17100544. [PMID: 31547548 PMCID: PMC6835263 DOI: 10.3390/md17100544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The microorganisms that evolved at low temperatures express cold-adapted enzymes endowed with unique catalytic properties in comparison to their mesophilic homologues, i.e., higher catalytic efficiency, improved flexibility, and lower thermal stability. Cold environments are therefore an attractive research area for the discovery of enzymes to be used for investigational and industrial applications in which such properties are desirable. In this work, we will review the literature on cold-adapted enzymes specifically focusing on those discovered in the bioprospecting of polar marine environments, so far largely neglected because of their limited accessibility. We will discuss their existing or proposed biotechnological applications within the framework of the more general applications of cold-adapted enzymes.
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Duarte AWF, Dos Santos JA, Vianna MV, Vieira JMF, Mallagutti VH, Inforsato FJ, Wentzel LCP, Lario LD, Rodrigues A, Pagnocca FC, Pessoa Junior A, Durães Sette L. Cold-adapted enzymes produced by fungi from terrestrial and marine Antarctic environments. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2017; 38:600-619. [PMID: 29228814 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2017.1379468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Antarctica is the coldest, windiest, and driest continent on Earth. In this sense, microorganisms that inhabit Antarctica environments have to be adapted to harsh conditions. Fungal strains affiliated with Ascomycota and Basidiomycota phyla have been recovered from terrestrial and marine Antarctic samples. They have been used for the bioprospecting of molecules, such as enzymes. Many reports have shown that these microorganisms produce cold-adapted enzymes at low or mild temperatures, including hydrolases (e.g. α-amylase, cellulase, chitinase, glucosidase, invertase, lipase, pectinase, phytase, protease, subtilase, tannase, and xylanase) and oxidoreductases (laccase and superoxide dismutase). Most of these enzymes are extracellular and their production in the laboratory has been carried out mainly under submerged culture conditions. Several studies showed that the cold-adapted enzymes exhibit a wide range in optimal pH (1.0-9.0) and temperature (10.0-70.0 °C). A myriad of methods have been applied for cold-adapted enzyme purification, resulting in purification factors and yields ranging from 1.70 to 1568.00-fold and 0.60 to 86.20%, respectively. Additionally, some fungal cold-adapted enzymes have been cloned and expressed in host organisms. Considering the enzyme-producing ability of microorganisms and the properties of cold-adapted enzymes, fungi recovered from Antarctic environments could be a prolific genetic resource for biotechnological processes (industrial and environmental) carried out at low or mild temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alysson Wagner Fernandes Duarte
- a Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Campus Arapiraca , Arapiraca , Brazil.,b Divisão de Recursos Microbianos , Centro Pluridisciplinar de Pesquisas Químicas, Biológicas e Agrícolas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas , Paulínia , Brazil
| | - Juliana Aparecida Dos Santos
- c Departamento de Bioquímica e Microbiologia , Universidade Estadual Paulistra (UNESP), Câmpus de Rio Claro , Rio Claro , Brazil
| | - Marina Vitti Vianna
- c Departamento de Bioquímica e Microbiologia , Universidade Estadual Paulistra (UNESP), Câmpus de Rio Claro , Rio Claro , Brazil
| | - Juliana Maíra Freitas Vieira
- c Departamento de Bioquímica e Microbiologia , Universidade Estadual Paulistra (UNESP), Câmpus de Rio Claro , Rio Claro , Brazil
| | - Vitor Hugo Mallagutti
- c Departamento de Bioquímica e Microbiologia , Universidade Estadual Paulistra (UNESP), Câmpus de Rio Claro , Rio Claro , Brazil
| | - Fabio José Inforsato
- c Departamento de Bioquímica e Microbiologia , Universidade Estadual Paulistra (UNESP), Câmpus de Rio Claro , Rio Claro , Brazil
| | - Lia Costa Pinto Wentzel
- c Departamento de Bioquímica e Microbiologia , Universidade Estadual Paulistra (UNESP), Câmpus de Rio Claro , Rio Claro , Brazil
| | - Luciana Daniela Lario
- d Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos, Universidad Nacional de Rosario , Rosario , Argentina.,e Departamento de Tecnologia Bioquímico-Farmacêutica , Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Andre Rodrigues
- c Departamento de Bioquímica e Microbiologia , Universidade Estadual Paulistra (UNESP), Câmpus de Rio Claro , Rio Claro , Brazil
| | - Fernando Carlos Pagnocca
- c Departamento de Bioquímica e Microbiologia , Universidade Estadual Paulistra (UNESP), Câmpus de Rio Claro , Rio Claro , Brazil
| | - Adalberto Pessoa Junior
- e Departamento de Tecnologia Bioquímico-Farmacêutica , Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Lara Durães Sette
- c Departamento de Bioquímica e Microbiologia , Universidade Estadual Paulistra (UNESP), Câmpus de Rio Claro , Rio Claro , Brazil
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13
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Dong J, Gasmalla MAA, Zhao W, Sun J, Liu W, Wang M, Han L, Yang R. Characterization of a cold-adapted esterase and mutants from a psychotolerant Pseudomonas
sp. strain. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2017; 64:686-699. [DOI: 10.1002/bab.1525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 07/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juan Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science & Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu People's Republic of China
- College of Food Science and Engineering; Shihezi University; Shihezi Xinjiang People's Republic of China
| | - Mohammed A. A. Gasmalla
- School of Food Science and Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science & Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu People's Republic of China
- School of Food Science and Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu People's Republic of China
| | - Jingtao Sun
- College of Food Science and Engineering; Shihezi University; Shihezi Xinjiang People's Republic of China
| | - Wenyu Liu
- Xinjiang Shihezi Vocational Technical College; Shihezi Xinjiang People's Republic of China
| | - Mingming Wang
- School of Food Science and Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Han
- School of Food Science and Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu People's Republic of China
| | - Ruijin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science & Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu People's Republic of China
- School of Food Science and Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu People's Republic of China
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Metagenome Analysis: a Powerful Tool for Enzyme Bioprospecting. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2017; 183:636-651. [PMID: 28815469 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-017-2568-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Microorganisms are found throughout every corner of nature, and vast number of microorganisms is difficult to cultivate by classical microbiological techniques. The advent of metagenomics has revolutionized the field of microbial biotechnology. Metagenomics allow the recovery of genetic material directly from environmental niches without any cultivation techniques. Currently, metagenomic tools are widely employed as powerful tools to isolate and identify enzymes with novel biocatalytic activities from the uncultivable component of microbial communities. The employment of next-generation sequencing techniques for metagenomics resulted in the generation of large sequence data sets derived from various environments, such as soil, the human body and ocean water. This review article describes the state-of-the-art techniques and tools in metagenomics and discusses the potential of metagenomic approaches for the bioprospecting of industrial enzymes from various environmental samples. We also describe the unusual novel enzymes discovered via metagenomic approaches and discuss the future prospects for metagenome technologies.
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15
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Tanghe M, Danneels B, Last M, Beerens K, Stals I, Desmet T. Disulfide bridges as essential elements for the thermostability of lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase LPMO10C from Streptomyces coelicolor. Protein Eng Des Sel 2017; 30:401-408. [PMID: 28338903 DOI: 10.1093/protein/gzx014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) are crucial components of cellulase mixtures but their stability has not yet been studied in detail, let alone been engineered for industrial applications. In this work, we have evaluated the importance of disulfide bridges for the thermodynamic stability of Streptomyces coelicolor LPMO10C. Interestingly, this enzyme was found to retain 34% of its activity after 2-h incubation at 80°C while its apparent melting temperature (Tm) is only 51°C. When its three disulfide bridges were broken, however, irreversible unfolding occurred and no residual activity could be detected after a similar heat treatment. Based on these findings, additional disulfide bridges were introduced, as predicted by computational tools (MOdelling of DIsulfide bridges in Proteins (MODiP) and Disulfide by Design (DbD)) and using the most flexible positions in the structure as target sites. Four out of 16 variants displayed an improvement in Tm, ranging from 2 to 9°C. Combining the positive mutations yielded additional improvements (up to 19°C) but aberrant unfolding patterns became apparent in some cases, resulting in a diminished capacity for heat resistance. Nonetheless, the best variant, a combination of A143C-P183C and S73C-A115C, displayed a 12°C increase in Tm and was able to retain and was able to retain no less than 60% of its activity after heat treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magali Tanghe
- Centre for Synthetic Biology (CSB), Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Barbara Danneels
- Centre for Synthetic Biology (CSB), Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Matthias Last
- Centre for Synthetic Biology (CSB), Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Koen Beerens
- Centre for Synthetic Biology (CSB), Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ingeborg Stals
- Industrial Catalysis and Adsorption Technology (INCAT), Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tom Desmet
- Centre for Synthetic Biology (CSB), Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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Bae JH, Kim IH, Lee KT, Hou CT, Kim HR. Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel cold-active lipase from Pichia lynferdii NRRL Y-7723. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2017.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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17
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Physical and molecular bases of protein thermal stability and cold adaptation. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2016; 42:117-128. [PMID: 28040640 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2016.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2016] [Revised: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The molecular bases of thermal and cold stability and adaptation, which allow proteins to remain folded and functional in the temperature ranges in which their host organisms live and grow, are still only partially elucidated. Indeed, both experimental and computational studies fail to yield a fully precise and global physical picture, essentially because all effects are context-dependent and thus quite intricate to unravel. We present a snapshot of the current state of knowledge of this highly complex and challenging issue, whose resolution would enable large-scale rational protein design.
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Santiago M, Ramírez-Sarmiento CA, Zamora RA, Parra LP. Discovery, Molecular Mechanisms, and Industrial Applications of Cold-Active Enzymes. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1408. [PMID: 27667987 PMCID: PMC5016527 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cold-active enzymes constitute an attractive resource for biotechnological applications. Their high catalytic activity at temperatures below 25°C makes them excellent biocatalysts that eliminate the need of heating processes hampering the quality, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness of industrial production. Here we provide a review of the isolation and characterization of novel cold-active enzymes from microorganisms inhabiting different environments, including a revision of the latest techniques that have been used for accomplishing these paramount tasks. We address the progress made in the overexpression and purification of cold-adapted enzymes, the evolutionary and molecular basis of their high activity at low temperatures and the experimental and computational techniques used for their identification, along with protein engineering endeavors based on these observations to improve some of the properties of cold-adapted enzymes to better suit specific applications. We finally focus on examples of the evaluation of their potential use as biocatalysts under conditions that reproduce the challenges imposed by the use of solvents and additives in industrial processes and of the successful use of cold-adapted enzymes in biotechnological and industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Santiago
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Centre for Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Universidad de ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - César A. Ramírez-Sarmiento
- Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - Ricardo A. Zamora
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - Loreto P. Parra
- Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
- Department of Chemical and Bioprocesses Engineering, School of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago, Chile
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Kavitha
- School of Biosciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore, India
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Siddiqui KS. Defying the activity–stability trade-off in enzymes: taking advantage of entropy to enhance activity and thermostability. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2016; 37:309-322. [DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2016.1144045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Khawar Sohail Siddiqui
- Department of Life Sciences, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Yan Q, Duan X, Liu Y, Jiang Z, Yang S. Expression and characterization of a novel 1,3-regioselective cold-adapted lipase from Rhizomucor endophyticus suitable for biodiesel synthesis. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2016; 9:86. [PMID: 27081399 PMCID: PMC4831154 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-016-0501-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The biodiesel production can be carried out by transesterification using either chemical or enzymatic process. The enzymatic transesterification is more promising as it offers an environmental friendly option compared to the chemical process, where the lipases with high catalytic efficiency and good stability play a key role. Hence, it is of great value to identify novel lipases which are suitable for biodiesel production. RESULTS A lipase gene (ReLipA) from Rhizomucor endophyticus was cloned and heterologously expressed in Pichia pastoris. ReLipA shared the highest identity of 61 % with the lipases from Rhizopus delemar, Rhizopus oryzae, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The recombinant lipase (ReLipA) was secreted as an active protein with the highest activity of 1961 U mL(-1) in a 5-L fermentor by high cell-density fermentation. ReLipA was purified to homogeneity with a recovery yield of 75.7 %. The purified enzyme was most active at pH 6.0 and 40 °C, respectively, and it was stable up to 55 °C. ReLipA displayed 75 % of its maximal activity at 0 °C, indicating that it is a cold-adapted lipase. It exhibited broad substrate specificity toward various p-nitrophenyl esters and triglycerides. ReLipA hydrolyzed triolein to release mainly 1,2-diolein without the formation of 1,3-diolein, suggesting that it is a sn-1,3 regiospecific lipase. Furthermore, ReLipA synthesized different types of oleates by esterification using oleic acid and short chain alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, and butanol) as the substrates with the highest conversion yield of 82.2 %. Therefore, the cold-adapted lipase may be a good biocatalyst in ester synthesis in biodiesel industry. CONCLUSIONS A novel cold-adapted lipase was identified and characterized. The high yield and excellent properties may confer the enzyme with great potential for biodiesel production in bioenergy industry. This is the first report on a cold-adapted lipase from Rhizomucor species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaojuan Yan
- />Bioresource Utilization Laboratory, College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083 China
| | - Xiaojie Duan
- />College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083 China
| | - Yu Liu
- />College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083 China
| | - Zhengqiang Jiang
- />College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083 China
| | - Shaoqing Yang
- />College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083 China
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Some like it hot, some like it cold: Temperature dependent biotechnological applications and improvements in extremophilic enzymes. Biotechnol Adv 2015; 33:1912-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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23
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Dong J, Zhao W, Gasmalla MA, Sun J, Hua X, Zhang W, Han L, Fan Y, Feng Y, Shen Q, Yang R. A novel extracellular cold-active esterase of Pseudomonas sp. TB11 from glacier No.1: Differential induction, purification and characterisation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2015.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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24
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Ji X, Li S, Wang B, Zhang Q, Lin L, Dong Z, Wei Y. Expression, purification and characterization of a functional, recombinant, cold-active lipase (LipA) from psychrotrophic Yersinia enterocolitica. Protein Expr Purif 2015; 115:125-31. [PMID: 26256062 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2015.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 08/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A novel cold-active lipase gene encoding 294 amino acid residues was obtained from the Yersinia enterocolitica strain KM1. Sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis revealed that this novel lipase is a new member of the bacterial lipase family I.1. The lipase shares the conserved GXSXG motif and catalytic triad Ser85-Asp239-His261. The recombinant protein LipA was solubly and heterogeneously expressed in Escherichia coli, purified by Ni-affinity chromatography, and then characterized. LipA was active over a broad range spanning 15-60°C with an optimum activity at 25°C and across a wide pH range from 5.0 to 11.0 with an optimum activity at pH 7.5. The molecular weight was estimated to be 34.2 KDa. The lipase could be activated by Mg(2+) and a low concentration (10%) of ethanol, dimethyl sulfoxide, methanol and acetonitrile, whereas it was strongly inhibited by Zn(2+), Cu(2+) and Mn(2+). This cold-active lipase may be a good candidate for detergents and biocatalysts at low temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuling Ji
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, PR China
| | - Shan Li
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, PR China
| | - Baoqiang Wang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agriculture University, Lanzhou, Gansu, PR China
| | - Qi Zhang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, PR China
| | - Lianbing Lin
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, PR China
| | - Zhiyang Dong
- Institute of Microbiology Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, PR China
| | - Yunlin Wei
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, PR China.
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25
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Ekinci AP, Dinçer B, Baltaş N, Adıgüzel A. Partial purification and characterization of lipase from Geobacillus stearothermophilus AH22. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2015; 31:325-31. [DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2015.1024677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Arife Pınar Ekinci
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Rize, Turkey and
| | - Barbaros Dinçer
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Rize, Turkey and
| | - Nimet Baltaş
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Rize, Turkey and
| | - Ahmet Adıgüzel
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic, Faculty of Science, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey
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26
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Ji X, Chen G, Zhang Q, Lin L, Wei Y. Purification and characterization of an extracellular cold-adapted alkaline lipase produced by psychrotrophic bacterium Yersinia enterocolitica strain KM1. J Basic Microbiol 2015; 55:718-28. [PMID: 25677080 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.201400730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
An extracellular cold-adapted alkaline lipase from the psychrotrophic Yersinia enterocolitica strain KM1 was purified 26-fold to homogeneity. The enzyme was active over a broad range spanning 0-60 °C with an optimum activity at 37 °C, and it was found to be alkaline-preferring with an optimum activity at pH 9.0. The molecular weight was estimated to be 34.3 KDa and monomeric. The lipase could be activated by Ca(2+) and low concentration (10%) of ethanol, dimethyl sulphoxide, methanol, and acetonitrile, whereas it was strongly inhibited by Zn(2+), Cu(2+), SDS, EDTA, and PMSF. Using p-nitrophenyl butyrate as a substrate at 37 °C, the Km and Vmax of the enzyme were found to be 16.58 mM and 5.24 × 10(5) μM · min(-1), respectively. This extracellular cold-adapted alkaline lipase may be a good candidate for detergents and biocatalysts at low temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuling Ji
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Yunnan, China.,Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Guiyuan Chen
- Biochemistry and Molecule Biology, Department of Basic Medicine College, Dali University, Dali, China
| | - Qi Zhang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Lianbing Lin
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Yunlin Wei
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
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27
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Purification and characterization of a cold-active lipase from Pichia lynferdii Y-7723: pH-dependant activity deviation. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-014-0300-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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28
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Jiewei T, Zuchao L, Peng Q, Lei W, Yongqiang T. Purification and characterization of a cold-adapted lipase from Oceanobacillus strain PT-11. PLoS One 2014; 9:e101343. [PMID: 24984141 PMCID: PMC4077839 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We isolated a moderately halophilic lipase-producing bacterium from the saline soil. Based on the morphological, physiological, chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic analysis, the isolate PT-11 was postulated to be a novel species identified as Oceanobacillus rekensis PT-11. The lipase was purified 2.50-fold by Q-Sepharose FF and SP-Sepharose FF chromatography and its molecular mass was estimated to be 23.5 kDa by SDS-PAGE. It was highly active over the broad temperature ranging from 10 to 35°C and showed up to 80% of the maximum activity at 10°C indicating the lipase to be a typical cold-adapted enzyme. The enzyme activity was slightly enhanced by Na+, Li+ and K+. Incubation with detergents, such as Tween-20 and Tween-80, slightly inhibited the enzyme activity; while Triton X-100decreased the enzyme activity. The enzyme was fairly stable in the presence of long-chain alcohols but was highly denatured in hydrophilic solvents such as acetone or short-chain alcohols (C1-C3).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Jiewei
- Key laboratory of Leather Chemistry and engineering, College of Light Industry, Textile and Food Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Engineering, College of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Lei Zuchao
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Engineering, College of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qiu Peng
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Engineering, College of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Wang Lei
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Engineering, College of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Tian Yongqiang
- Key laboratory of Leather Chemistry and engineering, College of Light Industry, Textile and Food Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- * E-mail:
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Homologous yeast lipases/acyltransferases exhibit remarkable cold-active properties. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2014; 98:8927-36. [PMID: 24770385 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-5776-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Lipases/acyltransferases catalyse acyltransfer to various nucleophiles preferentially to hydrolysis even in aqueous media with high thermodynamic activity of water (a w >0.9). Characterization of hydrolysis and acyltransfer activities in a large range of temperature (5 to 80 °C) of secreted recombinant homologous lipases of the Pseudozyma antarctica lipase A superfamily (CaLA) expressed in Pichia pastoris, enlighten the exceptional cold-activity of two remarkable lipases/acyltransferases: CpLIP2 from Candida parapsilosis and CtroL4 from Candida tropicalis. The activation energy of the reactions catalysed by CpLIP2 and CtroL4 was 18-23 kJ mol(-1) for hydrolysis and less than 15 kJ mol(-1) for transesterification between 5 and 35 °C, while it was respectively 43 and 47 kJ mol(-1) with the thermostable CaLA. A remarkable consequence is the high rate of the reactions catalysed by CpLIP2 and CtroL4 at very low temperatures, with CpLIP2 displaying at 5 °C 65 % of its alcoholysis activity and 45 % of its hydrolysis activity at 30 °C. These results suggest that, within the CaLA superfamily and its homologous subgroups, common structural determinants might allow both acyltransfer and cold-active properties. Such biocatalysts are of great interest for the efficient synthesis or functionalization of temperature-sensitive lipid derivatives, or more generally to lessen the environmental impact of biocatalytic processes.
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Daroch M, Houghton CA, Moore JK, Wilkinson MC, Carnell AJ, Bates AD, Iwanejko LA. Glycosylated yellow laccases of the basidiomycete Stropharia aeruginosa. Enzyme Microb Technol 2014; 58-59:1-7. [PMID: 24731818 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2014.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Revised: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Here we describe the identification, purification and characterisation of glycosylated yellow laccase proteins from the basidiomycete fungus Stropharia aeruginosa. Biochemical characterisation of two yellow laccases, Yel1p and Yel3p, show that they are both secreted, monomeric, N-glycosylated proteins of molecular weight around 55kDa with substrate specificities typical of laccases, but lacking the absorption band at 612nm typical of the blue laccase proteins. Low coverage, high throughput 454 transcriptome sequencing in combination with inverse-PCR was used to identify cDNA sequences. One of the cDNA sequences has been assigned to the Yel1p protein on the basis of identity between the translated protein sequence and the peptide data from the purified protein, and the full length gene sequence has been obtained. Biochemical properties, substrate specificities and protein sequence data have been used to discuss the unusual spectroscopic properties of S. aeruginosa proteins in the context of recent theories about the differences between yellow and blue laccases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurycy Daroch
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Biosciences Building, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom; School of Environment and Energy, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Catharine A Houghton
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Biosciences Building, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan K Moore
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Biosciences Building, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom
| | - Mark C Wilkinson
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Biosciences Building, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J Carnell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D Bates
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Biosciences Building, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom
| | - Lesley A Iwanejko
- Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, University of Liverpool, Duncan Building, Daulby Street, Liverpool L69 3GA, United Kingdom.
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