Pharmacokinetics of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim in Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, after oral administration of single-dose and multiple-dose

Transcriptomic Association Analysis of the Metabolic Mechanism of Sulfamethoxazole in Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)

Sulfamethoxazole is a widely used antimicrobial drug used to treat bacterial diseases in aquaculture. To understand the gene expression in channel catfish liver after treatment with sulfamethoxazole, in this study, the treatment group received sulfamethoxazole (100 mg/kg bw), which was administered orally once, and samples were taken at 5 h, 12 h, and 6 d after the administration of sulfamethoxazole, while the control group was orally administered sterile water. To further identify potentially significant genes, a transcriptome analysis using RNA-seq was carried out. More than 50 million high-quality reads were found. After filtering and quality analysis, these reads were identified as 54,169,682, 51,313,865, 51,608,845, and 49,333,491. After counting 23,707 of these transcripts for gene expression, it was discovered that 14,732 of them had genes with differential expression. Moreover, we found that the annotation with the most GO variation was "cellular process" (1616 genes), "metabolic process" (1268 genes), "binding" (1889 genes), and "catalytic activity" (1129 genes). KEGG pathways showed that the "metabolic pathway" was the pathway that was significantly enriched in both experimental groups when comparing the experimental groups: 5 h and 12 h (128 genes); 5 h and 6 d (332 genes); and 12 h and 6 d (348 genes). Also, UDP- glucuronosyltransferase (ugt), which is associated with glucuronidation, and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2C1-like (ugt2a1) showed significant upregulation. Carboxylesterase 5A-like (ces3), which promotes fatty acyl and cholesteryl ester metabolism, and the glutathione transferase family were upregulated in the expression of sulfamethoxazole metabolism in the liver, which significantly affected the metabolic effects of the drug. Meanwhile, dypd, uck2b, and rrm2, which are related to nucleotide synthesis and metabolism, were upregulated. Our study extends the knowledge of gene expression in drug metabolism in channel catfish and further provides insight into the molecular mechanism of sulfamethoxazole metabolism.

Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of florfenicol and florfenicol amine in snubnose pompano (Trachinotus blochii) following oral administration

The present study reports the comparative pharmacokinetic profiles of florfenicol and its metabolite (florfenicol amine, FFA) in Trachinotus blochii under tropical marine conditions (salinity: 35 ± 1.4‰; temperature: 28.8 ± 0.54 °C) following a single in-feed oral administration of the recommended dose (15 mg/Kg). Furthermore, the study investigated the distribution of these two compounds in nine different tissues. The maximum florfenicol concentrations (C_max) in plasma and tissues were observed within five hours (T_max), except for bile. The C_max ranged from 572 to 1954 ng/g or ml and was in the intestine > bile > muscle + skin > liver > gill = heart > plasma > kidney = spleen. The elimination half-life of FFC was significantly slower in the bile (38.25 ± 4.46 h). The AUC tissue/plasma was highest for bile (3.77 ± 0.22), followed by intestine > muscle + skin > heart > liver > kidney = gill = spleen. T_max and t_1/2β were slower, and C_max was lower for FFA than florfenicol in all tissues except C_max of the kidney and bile. FFA t_1/2β was exceptionally slower in the kidney (46.01 ± 8.2 h). Interestingly, reaching an apparent distribution rate of > 0.5 was comparatively faster in the kidney, liver, and gills than in other tissues. The highest apparent metabolic rate was in the kidney (0.95 ± 0.01) and the lowest in plasma (0.41 ± 0.01). The generated data can be applied for formulating efficient therapeutic protocols in T. blochii, a promising mariculture species.

Glucose Incorporated Graphite Matrix for Electroanalysis of Trimethoprim

The antibiotic drug trimethoprim (TMP) is used to treat bacterial infections in humans and animals, and frequently TMP is used along with sulfonamides. However, a large portion of TMP is excreted in its active state, which poses a severe problem to humans and the environment. A sensitive, rapid, cost-effective analytical tool is required to monitor the TMP concentration in biological and environmental samples. Hence, this study proposed an analytical methodology to analyze TMP in clinical, biological and environmental samples. The investigations were carried out using a glucose-modified carbon paste electrode (G-CPE) employing voltammetric techniques. Electrochemical behavior was examined with 0.5 mM TMP solution at optimum pH 3.4 (Phosphate Buffer Solution, I = 0.2 M). The influence of scan rate on the electro-oxidation of TMP was studied within the range of 0.05 to 0.55 V/s. The effect of pH and scan rate variations revealed proton transfer during oxidation. Moreover, diffusion phenomena governed the irreversibility of the electrode reaction. A probable and suitable electrode interaction and reaction mechanism was proposed for the electrochemical oxidation of TMP. Further, the TMP was quantitatively estimated with the differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) technique in the concentration range from 9.0 × 10^-7 to 1.0 × 10^-4 M. The tablet, spiked water and urine analysis demonstrated that the selected method and developed electrode were rapid, simple, sensitive, and cost-effective.

Pharmacokinetics and Tissue Residue Profiles of Enrofloxacin in Crucian Carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) Following Single and Multiple Oral Administration

The pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution, and elimination of enrofloxacin (ENR) and its metabolite ciprofloxacin (CIP) were investigated to the crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) after single (20 mg/kg b. w.) and multiple oral administration (20 mg/kg b.w. one time daily for 5 days) at 28°C. The concentrations of ENR and CIP in the plasma and tested tissues (muscle/skin, liver, and kidney) were detected simultaneously by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the pharmacokinetic data were analyzed with a non-compartmental model using WinNonLin 6.1 PK software (Pharsight Corporation, Mountain View, CA, USA). The pharmacokinetic characteristics of ENR in crucian carp exhibited slow absorption, wide tissue distribution, and long elimination half-life. In the single-dose group, the peak concentrations (Cmax) of ENR in the plasma, muscle/skin, liver, and kidney were 8.93 μg/mL, 13.9 μg/g, 31.2 μg/g, and 27.3 μg/g, respectively, observed at 3 h, 6 h, 1 h, and 3 h after dosing. The elimination half-lives (T1/2λz ) of ENR in plasma, muscle/skin, liver, and kidney were calculated to be 67.4, 82.8, 94.4, and 114 h, respectively. In the multiple-dose group, the Cmax of ENR in the plasma, muscle/skin, liver, and kidney were 18.4 μg/mL, 26.8 μg/g, 82.8 μg/g, and 74.5 μg/g, respectively, achieved at 3 h, 6 h, 1 h, and 1 h after the last dose. The T1/2λz of ENR in the plasma, muscle/skin, liver, and kidney were calculated to be 76.4 h, 91.5 h, 114 h, and 148 h, respectively. During the multiple-dose administration, significant accumulations of ENR and CIP were observed in the plasma and tissues of crucian carp, possibly due to their long elimination half-lives. In both dose groups, the AUC0-∞ for both ENR and CIP followed the order of liver > kidney > muscle/skin > plasma. The finding suggested that the liver may play an important role in the metabolism of ENR. According to the calculated PK/PD indices of Cmax/minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and AUC24h/MIC, the multiple-dose regimen would be highly effective against pathogenic bacteria with a MIC value of ≤ 1.84 μg/ml. Depletion studies indicated that a withdrawal period of at least 29 or 32 days was necessary to guarantee food security after single or multiple oral gavage administration at 28°C.

Pharmacokinetics studies of eugenol in Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) after immersion bath

Background

Eugenol is the most commonly used plant anesthetic to relieve the stressors during various aquaculture procedures. This study aims to investigate the pharmacokinetics of eugenol in Pacific white shrimp by immersion baths in a simulated transportation.

Results

The pharmacokinetics of eugenol were firstly investigated in Pacific white shrimp by immersion baths of 300 mg L^− 1 eugenol over 5 min (Treatment 1), 10 mg L^− 1 eugenol during 24 h (Treatment 2) and a sequential immersion administration (Treatment 3). Concentrations of eugenol in hemolymph, hepatopancreas, and muscle were determined using Gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). After immersion bath of Treatment 1, the elimination half-life (t_1/2z) values are 1.3 h and 11 h for hepatopancreas and muscles, indicating the rapid absorption and elimination of eugenol in shrimp. Under the Treatment 2 administration, the eugenol peak concentration is 6527.9 μg/kg in muscle, followed by 402.8 μg/kg in hepatopancreas, with the lowest concentration of 37.9 μg/L in hemolymph. Area under the curve (AUC_0-∞) values lie in the order of muscle > hepatopancreas > hemolymph, suggesting that eugenol tends to accumulate in muscle by the immersion administration. Moreover, the average residence time (MRT_0-∞) values of 38.6, 23.0 and 115.3 h for hemolymph, hepatopancreas and muscle are achieved, which may indicate that hepatopancreas is the main organ for elimination of eugenol. After combining the conditions in a sequential bath immersion of eugenol (Treatment 3), the maximum concentration (C_max) values of eugenol are higher than those achieved in Treatment 2, indicating that accumulation of eugenol happened in haemolymph, hepatopancreas and muscle. In addition, the corresponding t_1/2z values are 4.7, 14.9 and 47.6 h, respectively, suggesting the faster elimination from the tissues following sequential administration. After the immersion bath, eugenol concentrations in muscle of Pacific white shrimp are lower than 2.5 mg/kg at 2 h, 48 h and 24.5 h in Treatment 1 ~ 3.

Conclusions

A withdrawal period of 2 h, 48 h and 24.5 h following a 300 mg L^− 1 of eugenol over a 5-min, 10 mg L^− 1 eugenol concentration during a 24-h and combined conditions in a sequential immersion bath were suggested.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-022-03145-3.

Transcriptome analysis to elucidate the toxicity mechanisms of fenvalerate, sulfide gatifloxacin, and ridomil on the hepatopancreas of Procambarus clarkii

Most antibiotics, insecticides, and other chemicals used in agricultural and fishery production tend to persist in the environment. Fenvalerate, sulfide gatifloxacin, and ridomil are widely used in aquaculture as antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic drugs; however, their toxicity mechanism remains unclear. Thus, we herein analyzed the effects of these three drugs on the hepatopancreas of Procambarus clarkii at the transcriptome level. Twelve normalized cDNA libraries were constructed using RNA extracted from P. clarkii after treatment with fenvalerate, sulfide gatifloxacin, or ridomil and from an untreated control group, followed by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis. In the control vs fenvalerate and control vs sulfide gatifloxacin groups, 14 and seven pathways were significantly enriched, respectively. Further, the effects of fenvalerate and sulfide gatifloxacin were similar on the hepatopancreas of P. clarkii. We also found that the expression level of genes encoding senescence marker protein-30 and arylsulfatase A was downregulated in the sulfide gatifloxacin group, indicating that sulfide gatifloxacin accelerated the apoptosis of hepatopancreatocytes. The expression level of major facilitator superfamily domain containing 10 was downregulated, implying that it interferes with the ability of the hepatopancreas to metabolize drugs. Interestingly, we found that Niemann pick type C1 and glucosylceramidase-β potentially interact with each other, consequently decreasing the antioxidant capacity of P. clarkii hepatopancreas. In the fenvalerate group, the downregulation of the expression level of xanthine dehydrogenase indicated that fenvalerate affected the immune system of P. clarkii; moreover, the upregulation of the expression level of pancreatitis-associated protein-2 and cathepsin C indicated that fenvalerate caused possible inflammatory pathological injury to P. clarkii hepatopancreas. In the ridomil group, no pathway was significantly enriched. In total, 21 genes showed significant differences in all three groups. To conclude, although there appears to be some overlap in the toxicity mechanisms of fenvalerate, sulfide gatifloxacin, and ridomil, further studies are warranted.

Transcriptome analysis of Penaeus vannamei hepatopancreas reveals differences in toxicity mechanisms between phoxim and prometryne

Due to overuse and terrestrial input, there are large quantities of phoxim and prometryne residues in some aquatic environments. In the present study, the effects of these compounds on Penaeus vannamei hepatopancreas were analysed at the transcriptome level to investigate toxicity in this nontarget aquaculture organism. Twelve normalised cDNA libraries were constructed using RNA from phoxim and prometryne treatment groups, and an untreated control group. A total of 667,750,902 clean reads were obtained. Analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified 449 in control vs phoxim groups, 185 in control vs prometryne groups, and 183 in prometryne vs phoxim groups. In the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis, arachidonic acid metabolism, pancreatic secretion, linoleic acid metabolism, and beta-alanine metabolism pathways were significantly enriched in control vs phoxim groups. In control vs prometryne groups, lysosome, pentose and glucuronate interconversion, antigen processing and presentation, and glycosaminoglycan degradation pathways were significantly enriched. In prometryne vs phoxim groups, protein digestion and absorption, extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction, PI3K-Akt signalling, cell adhesion molecule (CAM), AGE-RAGE signalling related to diabetic complications, focal adhesion, and renin secretion pathways were significantly enriched. In further detailed analysis, glutathione S-transferase (GST), glutathione peroxidase and basic phospholipase A2 were downregulated in the phoxim treatment group, indicating that phoxim damaged hepatopancreas. Upregulation of phospholipase A2 (secretory phospholipase A2-like) indicates possible inflammatory pathological injury to hepatopancreas caused by phoxim. Meanwhile, downregulation of CD63 indicates that prometryne affect the immune system.

Application of Rank Annihilation Factor Analysis for Antibacterial Drugs Determination by Means of pH Gradual Change-UV Spectral Data

The main objective of this study was to develop a simple and efficient spectrophotometric technique combined with chemometrics for the simultaneous determination of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and trimethoprim (TMP) in drug formulations. Specifically, we sought: (i) to evaluate the potential use of rank annihilation factor analysis (RAFA) to pH gradual change spectrophotometric data in order to provide sufficient accuracy and model robustness; and (ii) to determine SMX and TMP concentration in drug formulations without tedious pre-treatments such as derivatization or extraction techniques which are time-consuming and require hazardous solvents. In the proposed method, the spectra of the sample solutions at different pH values were recorded and the pH-spectra bilinear data matrix was generated. On these data, RAFA was then applied to estimate the concentrations of SMX and TMP in synthetic and real samples. Applying RAFA showed that the two drugs could be determined simultaneously with concentration ratios of SMX to TMP varying from 1:30 to 30:1 in the mixed samples (concentration range is 1-30 µg mL^-1 for both components). The limits of detection were 0.25 and 0.38 µg mL^-1 for SMX and TMP, respectively. The proposed method was successfully applied to the simultaneous determination of SMX and TMP in some synthetic, pharmaceutical formulation and biological fluid samples. In addition, the means of the estimated RSD (%) were 1.71 and 2.18 for SMX and TMP, respectively, in synthetic mixtures. The accuracy of the proposed method was confirmed by spiked recovery test on biological samples with satisfactory results (90.50-109.80%).

Liver proteome analysis of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) following treatment with enrofloxacin

Enrofloxacin is widely used for the prevention and control of bacterial diseases in aquaculture. The liver is crucial for enrofloxacin metabolism, but enrofloxacin can induce liver damage. Herein, we explored proteomic changes in the liver of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) following treatment with enrofloxacin using isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) technology. All experiments included two biological replicates and blank controls. Among the 3082 proteins identified, 103 were differentially abundant, comprising 49 up- and 54 downregulated proteins. Gene Ontology (GO) annotation identified macromolecular complex (63.60%), intracellular non-membrane-bound organelle (51.50%), and non-membrane-bound organelle (51.50%) as the most enriched cellular component terms. Structural molecule activity (26.80%), structural constituent of ribosome (17.90%), and calcium ion binding (16.10%) were the top three molecular function terms. Organic substance biosynthetic process (37.80%), biosynthetic process (37.80%), and protein metabolic process (37.80%) were the top three biological process terms. The Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis found 17 enriched KEGG pathways, with protein digestion and absorption, extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interactions, and ribosome and focal adhesion the most significant (p < 0.001). Analysis of the most enriched pathways revealed that chymotrypsin-like precursor, pancreatic elastase precursor, Na+/K+ transporting ATPase, collagen, and dermatopontin were upregulated, while ribosomal proteins, alpha-actinin, and myosin light chain were downregulated. These findings suggest that enrofloxacin affects liver function and has a risk of inducing an inflammatory response in extrahepatic organs.

The performance and evolution of bacterial community of activated sludge exposed to trimethoprim in a sequencing batch reactor

The performance and microbial community changes of an activated sludge sequencing batch reactor were evaluated after exposure to trimethoprim for 51days. The average chemical oxygen demand, ammonia nitrogen, phosphorus efficiencies were 88.6%±0.56%, 90.47%±0.29% and 64.25%±1.12%, respectively. The protein and polysaccharide contents increased with increasing trimethoprim concentration to protect the cells from the unfavorable conditions. The chemical composition of extracellular polymeric substances increased. For denitrifying bacteria, the read numbers of Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium and Bacillus were both significantly increased from Day 1 to 25 and sharply decreased by Day 50 (p<0.05), which is consistent with the tendency of Planctomyces (Anammox). The read number of Paracoccus displayed an increasing trend, whereas Nitrospirales, Nitrospira (nitrite oxidizer) and Nitrosomonadaceae (ammonia oxidizer) were significantly decreased (p<0.05). The read number of Rhodocyclaceae (phosphorus oxidizer) was significantly decreased from Day 1 to 25 and sharply increased by Day 50 (p<0.05).