1H NMR study of temperature-induced phase separation in solutions of poly(N-isopropylmethacrylamide-co-acrylamide) copolymers

1H-NMR studies on the volume phase transition of DNA-modified pNipmam microgels

DNA functionalized pNipmam microgels, which have recently been introduced, are examined at different concentrations of sodium chloride and in PBS solutions via temperature dependent 1H-NMR measurements and are compared to pure pNipmam microgels. We show that the DNA modification shifts the volume phase transition temperature towards lower temperatures and the addition of salt and PBS further supports this effect in both materials. Thermodynamic values, i.e. enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy, are determined via a non-linear fit which can be applied directly to the measurement data without further linearization.

Smart Poly(lactide)-b-poly(triethylene glycol methyl ether methacrylate) (PLA-b-PTEGMA) Block Copolymers: One-Pot Synthesis, Temperature Behavior, and Controlled Release of Paclitaxel

This paper introduces a new class of amphiphilic block copolymers created by combining two polymers: polylactic acid (PLA), a biocompatible and biodegradable hydrophobic polyester used for cargo encapsulation, and a hydrophilic polymer composed of oligo ethylene glycol chains (triethylene glycol methyl ether methacrylate, TEGMA), which provides stability and repellent properties with added thermo-responsiveness. The PLA-b-PTEGMA block copolymers were synthesized using ring-opening polymerization (ROP) and reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization (ROP-RAFT), resulting in varying ratios between the hydrophobic and hydrophilic blocks. Standard techniques, such as size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and ¹H NMR spectroscopy, were used to characterize the block copolymers, while ¹H NMR spectroscopy, 2D nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY), and dynamic light scattering (DLS) were used to analyze the effect of the hydrophobic PLA block on the LCST of the PTEGMA block in aqueous solutions. The results show that the LCST values for the block copolymers decreased with increasing PLA content in the copolymer. The selected block copolymer presented LCST transitions at physiologically relevant temperatures, making it suitable for manufacturing nanoparticles (NPs) and drug encapsulation-release of the chemotherapeutic paclitaxel (PTX) via temperature-triggered drug release mechanism. The drug release profile was found to be temperature-dependent, with PTX release being sustained at all tested conditions, but substantially accelerated at 37 and 40 °C compared to 25 °C. The NPs were stable under simulated physiological conditions. These findings demonstrate that the addition of hydrophobic monomers, such as PLA, can tune the LCST temperatures of thermo-responsive polymers, and that PLA-b-PTEGMA copolymers have great potential for use in drug and gene delivery systems via temperature-triggered drug release mechanisms in biomedicine applications.

Programmable Deformations of Biomimetic Composite Hydrogels Embedded with Printed Fibers

Shape deformations are prevalent in nature, which are closely related to the heterogeneous structures with a feature of fibrous elements embedded in a matrix. The microfibers with specific orientations act as either passive geometrical constraints in an active matrix or active elements in a passive matrix, which generate programmed internal stresses and drive shape morphing under external stimuli. Morphing materials can be designed in a biomimetic way, yet it is challenging to fabricate composite hydrogels with well-distributed fibers by a facile strategy. Here, we demonstrate the fabrication of microfiber-embedded hydrogels facilitated by the extrusion-based printing technology. Programmed deformations are achieved in these hydrogels with microfibers distributed in the upper and/or bottom layers of the gel matrix. Under external stimuli, the microfibers and the gel matrix have different responses that produce internal stresses and result in programmable deformations of the composite gel. Multiple shape transformations are realized in the hydrogel by embedding multiple types of responsive microfibers in the passive or active matrix, which is fabricated with the assistance of multinozzle printing. A soft hook is designed to show the capacity of the composite hydrogel to hold and move an object in a saline solution. This facile and versatile strategy provides an alternative way to prepare biomimetic hydrogels with potential applications in biomedical devices, flexible electronics, and soft robots.

Improving the Colloidal Stability of Temperature-Sensitive Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) Solutions Using Low Molecular Weight Hydrophobic Additives

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) is an important polymer with stimuli-responsive properties, making it suitable for various uses. Phase behavior of the temperature-sensitive PNIPAM polymer in the presence of four low-molecular weight additives tert-butylamine (t-BuAM), tert-butyl alcohol (t-BuOH), tert-butyl methyl ether (t-BuME), and tert-butyl methyl ketone (t-BuMK) was studied in water (D₂O) using high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and dynamic light scattering. Phase separation was thermodynamically modeled as a two-state process which resulted in a simple curve which can be used for fitting of NMR data and obtaining all important thermodynamic parameters using simple formulas presented in this paper. The model is based on a modified van't Hoff equation. Phase separation temperatures T _p and thermodynamic parameters (enthalpy and entropy change) connected with the phase separation of PNIPAM were obtained using this method. It was determined that T _p is dependent on additives in the following order: T _p(t-BuAM) > T _p(t-BuOH) > T _p(t-BuME) > T _p(t-BuMK). Also, either increasing the additive concentration or increasing pK _a of the additive leads to depression of T _p. Time-resolved ¹H NMR spin-spin relaxation experiments (T ₂) performed above the phase separation temperature of PNIPAM revealed high colloidal stability of the phase-separated polymer induced by the additives (relative to the neat PNIPAM/D₂O system). Small quantities of selected suitable additives can be used to optimize the properties of PNIPAM preparations including their phase separation temperatures, colloidal stabilities, and morphologies, thus improving the prospects for the application.

Insights into the thermal phase transition behavior of a gemini dicationic polyelectrolyte in aqueous solution

The thermal-induced phase transition behavior of a LCST-type poly(ionic liquid) (PIL) aqueous solution with gemini-cationic structure, poly[(1,8-octanediyl-bis(tri-n-butylphosphonium)4-styrene sulfonate)] (P[SS-P2]), was investigated in this paper. Based on the calorimetric measurements, a unique dependence of transition points on concentration was found in P[SS-P2] aqueous solution compared to its mono-cationic PIL and [SS-P2] aqueous solution. Optical microscopy showed that globular microscopic droplets were formed during the phase transition, suggesting that gemini dications and the possible dynamic ionic bonds may facilitate the liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) in P[SS-P2] aqueous solution. Temperature-variable 1H NMR and FT-IR investigations manifested that the dehydration of anionic chains instead of the dehydration of dications served as the driving force of the phase separation in the P[SS-P2] aqueous solution, implying that the polymerized anions tended to aggregate together first and lay in the core with dications distributed around the globules at the end of the transition process. Notably, considering that the SO3 groups in the gemini-cationic system tended to be distributed around the surface of collapsed anionic main chains rather than be wrapped into the aggregates, it is supposed that dynamic ionic bonding between dication and anionic backbones was distributed in the periphery of the globules and acted as the "cross-linkers", which enhanced the stability of regular droplets after the phase transition in P[SS-P2] aqueous solution.

Multiple interaction regulated phase transition behavior of thermo-responsive copolymers containing cationic poly(ionic liquid)s

Schematic illustration of the phase transition mechanism of the P(OEGMA-co-BVIm[SCN]) copolymer.

Internal Nanoparticle Structure of Temperature-Responsive Self-Assembled PNIPAM-b-PEG-b-PNIPAM Triblock Copolymers in Aqueous Solutions: NMR, SANS, and Light Scattering Studies

In this study, we report detailed information on the internal structure of PNIPAM-b-PEG-b-PNIPAM nanoparticles formed from self-assembly in aqueous solutions upon increase in temperature. NMR spectroscopy, light scattering, and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) were used to monitor different stages of nanoparticle formation as a function of temperature, providing insight into the fundamental processes involved. The presence of PEG in a copolymer structure significantly affects the formation of nanoparticles, making their transition to occur over a broader temperature range. The crucial parameter that controls the transition is the ratio of PEG/PNIPAM. For pure PNIPAM, the transition is sharp; the higher the PEG/PNIPAM ratio results in a broader transition. This behavior is explained by different mechanisms of PNIPAM block incorporation during nanoparticle formation at different PEG/PNIPAM ratios. Contrast variation experiments using SANS show that the structure of nanoparticles above cloud point temperatures for PNIPAM-b-PEG-b-PNIPAM copolymers is drastically different from the structure of PNIPAM mesoglobules. In contrast with pure PNIPAM mesoglobules, where solidlike particles and chain network with a mesh size of 1-3 nm are present, nanoparticles formed from PNIPAM-b-PEG-b-PNIPAM copolymers have nonuniform structure with "frozen" areas interconnected by single chains in Gaussian conformation. SANS data with deuterated "invisible" PEG blocks imply that PEG is uniformly distributed inside of a nanoparticle. It is kinetically flexible PEG blocks which affect the nanoparticle formation by prevention of PNIPAM microphase separation.

How can photoisomerization of azobenzene induce a large cloud point temperature shift of PNIPAM?

We present a comprehensive study of the photo-induced phase transition of azobenzene-containing poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) in block copolymers (BCPs) upon the isomerization of azobenzene in the mixed solvent of water and dioxane.