Polymer brush with pendent glucosylurea groups constructed on a glass substrate by RAFT polymerization

Surface-Initiated PET-RAFT via the Z-Group Approach

Surface-initiated reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (SI-RAFT) is a user-friendly and versatile approach for polymer brush engineering. For SI-RAFT, synthetic strategies follow either surface-anchoring of radical initiators (e.g., azo compounds) or anchoring RAFT chain transfer agents (CTAs) onto a substrate. The latter can be performed via the R-group or Z-group of the CTA, with the previous scientific focus in literature skewed heavily toward work on the R-group approach. This contribution investigates the alternative: a Z-group approach toward light-mediated SI photoinduced electron transfer RAFT (SI-PET-RAFT) polymerization. An appropriate RAFT CTA is synthesized, immobilized onto SiO2, and its ability to control the growth (and chain extension) of polymer brushes in both organic and aqueous environments is investigated with different acrylamide and methacrylate monomers. O2 tolerance allows Z-group SI-PET-RAFT to be performed under ambient conditions, and patterning surfaces through photolithography is illustrated. Polymer brushes are characterized via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), ellipsometry, and water contact angle measurements. An examination of polymer brush grafting density showed variation from 0.01 to 0.16 chains nm-2. Notably, in contrast to the R-group SI-RAFT approach, this chemical approach allows the growth of intermittent layers of polymer brushes underneath the top layer without changing the properties of the outermost surface.

Recent Advances in Hybrid Biomimetic Polymer-Based Films: from Assembly to Applications

Biological membranes, in addition to being a cell boundary, can host a variety of proteins that are involved in different biological functions, including selective nutrient transport, signal transduction, inter- and intra-cellular communication, and cell-cell recognition. Due to their extreme complexity, there has been an increasing interest in developing model membrane systems of controlled properties based on combinations of polymers and different biomacromolecules, i.e., polymer-based hybrid films. In this review, we have highlighted recent advances in the development and applications of hybrid biomimetic planar systems based on different polymeric species. We have focused in particular on hybrid films based on (i) polyelectrolytes, (ii) polymer brushes, as well as (iii) tethers and cushions formed from synthetic polymers, and (iv) block copolymers and their combinations with biomacromolecules, such as lipids, proteins, enzymes, biopolymers, and chosen nanoparticles. In this respect, multiple approaches to the synthesis, characterization, and processing of such hybrid films have been presented. The review has further exemplified their bioengineering, biomedical, and environmental applications, in dependence on the composition and properties of the respective hybrids. We believed that this comprehensive review would be of interest to both the specialists in the field of biomimicry as well as persons entering the field.

SI-PET-RAFT: Surface-Initiated Photoinduced Electron Transfer-Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer Polymerization

In this communication, surface-initiated photoinduced electron transfer-reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization (SI-PET-RAFT) is introduced. SI-PET-RAFT affords functionalization of surfaces with spatiotemporal control and provides oxygen tolerance under ambient conditions. All hallmarks of controlled radical polymerization (CRP) are met, affording well-defined polymerization kinetics, and chain end retention to allow subsequent extension of active chain ends to form block copolymers. The modularity and versatility of SI-PET-RAFT is highlighted through significant flexibility with respect to the choice of monomer, light source and wavelength, and photoredox catalyst. The ability to obtain complex patterns in the presence of air is a significant contribution to help pave the way for CRP-based surface functionalization into commercial application.

A novel approach for UV-patterning with binary polymer brushes

A mixed self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of an initiator (3-(2-bromo-2-isobutyryloxy)propyl triethoxysilane) for atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and an agent (6-(triethoxysilyl)hexyl 2-(((methylthio)carbonothioyl)thio)-2-phenylacetate) for reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization was constructed on the surface of a silicon wafer or glass plate by a silane coupling reaction. When a UV light at 254nm was irradiated at the mixed SAM through a photomask, the surface density of the bromine atom at the end of BPE in the irradiated region was drastically reduced by UV-driven scission of the BrC bond, as observed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Consequently, the surface-initiated (SI)-ATRP of 2-ethylhexyl methacrylate (EHMA) was used to easily construct the poly(EHMA) (PEHMA) brush domain. Subsequently, SI-RAFT polymerization of a zwitterionic vinyl monomer, carboxymethyl betaine (CMB), was performed. Using the sequential polymerization, the PCMB and PEHMA brush domains on the solid substrate could be very easily patterned. Patterning proteins and cells with the binary polymer brush is expected because the PCMB brush indicated strong suppression of protein adsorption and cell adhesion, and the PEHMA brush had non-polar properties. This technique is very simple and useful for regulating the shape and size of bio-fouling and anti-biofouling domains on solid surfaces.

Surface-Initiated Controlled Radical Polymerization: State-of-the-Art, Opportunities, and Challenges in Surface and Interface Engineering with Polymer Brushes

The generation of polymer brushes by surface-initiated controlled radical polymerization (SI-CRP) techniques has become a powerful approach to tailor the chemical and physical properties of interfaces and has given rise to great advances in surface and interface engineering. Polymer brushes are defined as thin polymer films in which the individual polymer chains are tethered by one chain end to a solid interface. Significant advances have been made over the past years in the field of polymer brushes. This includes novel developments in SI-CRP, as well as the emergence of novel applications such as catalysis, electronics, nanomaterial synthesis and biosensing. Additionally, polymer brushes prepared via SI-CRP have been utilized to modify the surface of novel substrates such as natural fibers, polymer nanofibers, mesoporous materials, graphene, viruses and protein nanoparticles. The last years have also seen exciting advances in the chemical and physical characterization of polymer brushes, as well as an ever increasing set of computational and simulation tools that allow understanding and predictions of these surface-grafted polymer architectures. The aim of this contribution is to provide a comprehensive review that critically assesses recent advances in the field and highlights the opportunities and challenges for future work.

A Simple Preparation of Photoactive Glass Surfaces Allowing Coatings via the "Grafting-from" Method

A simple and straightforward synthesis was developed to prepare the siloxy-substituted bis(acylphosphane)oxide 4-(trimethoxysilyl)butyl-3-[bis(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl)phosphinoyl]-2-methyl-propionate TMESI(2)-BAPO. This new photoinitiator was successfully fixed to glass surfaces. Subsequent irradiation with UV light in the presence of either a partially fluorinated acrylate or a specifically synthesized polysiloxane containing polymerizable acrylate functions allowed the generation of polymer chains which grew from the surface in an efficient radical polymerization process ("grafting-from" procedure). Durable hydrophobic surfaces were prepared which have contact angles between 93° and 95°. The silanization process with the photoinitiator and the grafting process were followed and analyzed with various techniques including high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Controlled decoration of the surface with macromolecules: polymerization on a self-assembled monolayer (SAM)

Polymer functionalized surfaces are important components of various sensors, solar cells and molecular electronic devices. In this context, the use of self-assembled monolayer (SAM) formation and subsequent reactions on the surface have attracted a lot of interest due to its stability, reliability and excellent control over orientation of functional groups. The chemical reactions to be employed on a SAM must ensure an effective functional group conversion while the reaction conditions must be mild enough to retain the structural integrity. This synthetic constraint has no universal solution; specific strategies such as "graft from", "graft to", "graft through" or "direct" immobilization approaches are employed depending on the nature of the substrate, polymer and its area of applications. We have reviewed current developments in the methodology of immobilization of a polymer in the first part of the article. Special emphasis has been given to the merits and demerits of certain methods. Another issue concerns the utility - demonstrated or perceived - of conjugated or non-conjugated macromolecules anchored on a functionally decorated SAM in the areas of material science and biotechnology. In the last part of the review article, we looked at the collective research efforts towards SAM-based polymer devices and identified major pointers of progress (236 references).

Aqueous RAFT synthesis of block and statistical copolymers of 2-(α-d-mannopyranosyloxy)ethyl methacrylate with 2-(N,N-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate and their application for nonviral gene delivery

Statistical and block glycopolymers presenting d-mannose were prepared by aqueous RAFT polymerization, and the effect of the microstructure on gene delivery was examined.

Quantitative evaluation of interaction force between functional groups in protein and polymer brush surfaces

To understand interactions between polymer surfaces and different functional groups in proteins, interaction forces were quantitatively evaluated by force-versus-distance curve measurements using atomic force microscopy with a functional-group-functionalized cantilever. Various polymer brush surfaces were systematically prepared by surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization as well-defined model surfaces to understand protein adsorption behavior. The polymer brush layers consisted of phosphorylcholine groups (zwitterionic/hydrophilic), trimethylammonium groups (cationic/hydrophilic), sulfonate groups (anionic/hydrophilic), hydroxyl groups (nonionic/hydrophilic), and n-butyl groups (nonionic/hydrophobic) in their side chains. The interaction forces between these polymer brush surfaces and different functional groups (carboxyl groups, amino groups, and methyl groups, which are typical functional groups existing in proteins) were quantitatively evaluated by force-versus-distance curve measurements using atomic force microscopy with a functional-group-functionalized cantilever. Furthermore, the amount of adsorbed protein on the polymer brush surfaces was quantified by surface plasmon resonance using albumin with a negative net charge and lysozyme with a positive net charge under physiological conditions. The amount of proteins adsorbed on the polymer brush surfaces corresponded to the interaction forces generated between the functional groups on the cantilever and the polymer brush surfaces. The weakest interaction force and least amount of protein adsorbed were observed in the case of the polymer brush surface with phosphorylcholine groups in the side chain. On the other hand, positive and negative surfaces generated strong forces against the oppositely charged functional groups. In addition, they showed significant adsorption with albumin and lysozyme, respectively. These results indicated that the interaction force at the functional group level might be a suitable parameter for understanding protein adsorption.

Elastic repulsion from polymer brush layers exhibiting high protein repellency

Hydrophilic poly(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) (PMPC) and poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA) brush layers with different thicknesses and graft densities were prepared to construct a model surface to elucidate protein-surface interactions. In particular, we focused on the steric repulsion of hydrophilic polymer layers as one of the surface properties that strongly influence protein adsorption and employed force-versus-distance (f-d) curve measurements obtained via atomic force microscopy to quantitatively evaluate the steric repulsion force, which is also referred to as the "elastic repulsion energy." We also analyzed direct interactions between the surface and proteins via the f-d curve, because these interactions trigger the protein-adsorption phenomenon. Protein-surface interactions were extremely suppressed at surfaces with high elastic repulsion energies and highly dense polymer brush structures, which is in contrast to those at surfaces with low elastic repulsion energies and low density of the grafted polymer layers. These results indicate that the elastic repulsion from the grafted polymer layer at the surface is an important parameter for controlling protein-surface interactions and protein adsorption phenomenon.