Canine retinal angioblasts are multipotent

Integrative Single-Cell Transcriptomics and Epigenomics Mapping of the Fetal Retina Developmental Dynamics

The underlying mechanisms that determine gene expression and chromatin accessibility in retinogenesis are poorly understood. Herein, single-cell RNA sequencing and single-cell assay for transposase-accessible chromatin sequencing are performed on human embryonic eye samples obtained 9-26 weeks after conception to explore the heterogeneity of retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) and neurogenic RPCs. The differentiation trajectory from RPCs to 7 major types of retinal cells are verified. Subsequently, diverse lineage-determining transcription factors are identified and their gene regulatory networks are refined at the transcriptomic and epigenomic levels. Treatment of retinospheres, with the inhibitor of RE1 silencing transcription factor, X5050, induces more neurogenesis with the regular arrangement, and a decrease in Müller glial cells. The signatures of major retinal cells and their correlation with pathogenic genes associated with multiple ocular diseases, including uveitis and age-related macular degeneration are also described. A framework for the integrated exploration of single-cell developmental dynamics of the human primary retina is provided.

An Update on Molecular Pathways Regulating Vasculogenic Mimicry in Human Osteosarcoma and Their Role in Canine Oncology

Canine tumors are valuable comparative models for human counterparts, especially to explore novel biomarkers and to understand pathways and processes involved in metastasis. Vasculogenic mimicry (VM) is a unique property of malignant cancer cells which promote metastasis. Thus, it represents an opportunity to investigate both the molecular mechanisms and the therapeutic targets of a crucial phenotypic malignant switch. Although this biological process has been largely investigated in different human cancer types, including osteosarcoma, it is still largely unknown in veterinary pathology, where it has been mainly explored in canine mammary tumors. The presence of VM in human osteosarcoma is associated with poor clinical outcome, reduced patient survival, and increased risk of metastasis and it shares the main pathways involved in other type of human tumors. This review illustrates the main findings concerning the VM process in human osteosarcoma, search for the related current knowledge in canine pathology and oncology, and potential involvement of multiple pathways in VM formation, in order to provide a basis for future investigations on VM in canine tumors.

From blood islands to blood vessels: morphologic observations and expression of key molecules during hyaloid vascular system development

PURPOSE

The mode of development of the human hyaloid vascular system (HVS) remains unclear. Early studies suggested that these blood vessels formed by vasculogenesis, while the current concept seems to favor angiogenesis as the mode of development. We examined embryonic and fetal human HVS using a variety of techniques to gain new insights into formation of this vasculature.

METHODS

Embryonic and fetal human eyes from 5.5 to 12 weeks gestation (WG) were prepared for immunohistochemical analysis or for light and electron microscopy. Immunolabeling of sections with a panel of antibodies directed at growth factors, transcription factors, and hematopoietic stem cell markers was employed.

RESULTS

Light microscopic examination revealed free blood islands (BI) in the embryonic vitreous cavity (5.5-7 WG). Giemsa stain revealed that BI were aggregates of mesenchymal cells and primitive nucleated erythroblasts. Free cells were also observed. Immunolabeling demonstrated that BI were composed of mesenchymal cells that expressed hemangioblast markers (CD31, CD34, C-kit, CXCR4, Runx1, and VEGFR2), erythroblasts that expressed embryonic hemoglobin (Hb-ε), and cells that expressed both. Few cells were proliferating as determined by lack of Ki67 antigen. As development progressed (12 WG), blood vessels became more mature structurally with pericyte investment and basement membrane formation. Concomitantly, Hb-ε and CXCR4 expression was down-regulated and von Willebrand factor expression was increased with the formation of Weibel-Palade bodies.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the view that the human HVS, like the choriocapillaris, develops by hemo-vasculogenesis, the process by which vasculogenesis, erythropoiesis, and hematopoiesis occur simultaneously from common precursors, hemangioblasts.

Animal models for the assessment of novel vascular conduits

The development of an ideal small-diameter conduit for use in vascular bypass surgery has yet to be achieved. The ongoing innovation in biomaterial design generates novel conduits that require preclinical assessment in vivo, and a number of animal models have been used for this purpose. This article examines the rationale behind animal models used in the assessment of small-diameter vascular conduits encompassing the commonly used species: baboons, sheep, pigs, dogs, rabbits, and rodents. Studies on the comparative hematology for these species relative to humans are summarized, and the hydrodynamic values for common implant locations are also compared. The large- and small-animal models are then explored, highlighting the characteristics of each that determine their relative utility in the assessment of vascular conduits. Where possible, the performance of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene is given in each animal and in each location to allow direct comparisons between species. New challenges in animal modeling are outlined for the assessment of tissue-engineered graft designs. Finally, recommendations are given for the selection of animal models for the assessment of future vascular conduits.

Development of the human choriocapillaris

Vasculogenesis and/or angiogenesis are thought to be the major mechanisms for new vessel formation during development. A third mechanism, haemo-vasculogenesis, has been described in which blood vessel and blood cells (haematopoiesis (expression of CD34(+)) and erythropoiesis (presence of epsilon chain of haemoglobin or Hb-epsilon(+))) differentiate from a common precursor, the haemangioblast. This review describes the mechanism(s) for development of human choroidal vascular from 6 until 22 weeks gestation (WG). Endothelial cell or EC (CD31, CD34, CD39, VEGFR-2) and angioblast (CD39, VEGFR-2) markers were present in choriocapillaris (CC) by 7 WG through 22 WG. From 6 to 8 WG, many erythroblasts (nucleated Hb-epsilon(+) RBCs) were observed in the CC layer. Erythroblasts (Hb-epsilon(+)) were also positive for CD34, CD31, and/or VEGFR-2. Proliferation of vascular cells (Ki67+), suggesting angiogenesis, was not observed until 12 WG. TEM analysis demonstrated that CC was structurally immature even at 11 WG: no basement membrane, absence of pericytes, and poorly formed lumens that were filled with filopodia. Contiguous fenestrations and significant PV-1 (protein in diaphragms of fenestrations) were not observed until 21-22 WG. Smooth muscle actin was prominent at 20 WG and the maturation of pericytes was confirmed by TEM. Therefore, the embryonic CC appears to form initially by haemo-vasculogenesis (Hb-epsilon(+)/CD31(+) cells), whereas angiogenesis (CD34(+)/Ki67(+)) appears to be the mode of intermediate and large choroidal vessel development later in the foetus. Contiguous fenestrations, mature pericytes, and EC basal lamina occur late in development, around 22 WG, which coincides with photoreceptors developing inner segments.

Maturation of the fetal human choriocapillaris

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine the structural and functional maturation of the choriocapillaris (CC) and to determine when fenestrations form, the capillaries are invested with pericytes, and the endothelial cells (ECs) became functional.

METHODS

Immunohistochemistry was performed on cryopreserved sections of embryonic/fetal human eyes from 7 to 22 weeks' gestation (WG), using antibodies against PAL-E, PV-1 (fenestrations), carbonic anhydrase IV (CA IV), eNOS, and alpha-smooth muscle actin (alphaSMA) and NG2 (two pericyte markers) and the EC marker (CD31). Alkaline phosphatase (APase) enzymatic activity was demonstrated by enzyme histochemistry. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was performed on eyes at 11, 14, 16, and 22 WG. Adult human eyes were used as the positive control.

RESULTS

All EC markers were present in the CC by 7 WG. PAL-E, CA IV, and eNOS immunoreactivities and APase activity were present in the CC by 7 to 9 WG. TEM analysis demonstrated how structurally immature this vasculature was, even at 11 WG: no basement membrane, absence of pericytes, and poorly formed lumens that were filled with filopodia. The few fenestrations that were observed were often present within the luminal space in the filopodia. Contiguous fenestrations and significant PV-1 were not observed until 21 to 22 WG. alphaSMA was prominent at 22 WG, and the maturation of pericytes was confirmed by TEM.

CONCLUSIONS

It appears that ECs and their precursors express enzymes present in adult CC well before they are structurally mature. Although ECs make tight junctions early in development, contiguous fenestrations and mature pericytes occur much later in development.

Vascular precursors in developing human retina

PURPOSE

Prior investigation has demonstrated that angioblasts are present in the inner retinas of human embryos and fetuses and that they differentiate and organize to form the primordial retinal vasculature. The purpose of this study was to characterize these angioblasts further and examine ligands that might control their migration and differentiation.

METHODS

Immunohistochemistry was used to localize stroma-derived factor-1 (SDF-1), its receptor CXCR4, stem cell factor (SCF), and its receptor c-Kit on sections obtained from human eyes at from 6 to 23 weeks' gestation (WG). Coexpression of CD39 (marker for retinal angioblasts and endothelial cells) and CXCR4 or c-Kit was investigated by confocal microscopy.

RESULTS

SDF-1 was prominent in inner retina with the greatest reaction product near the internal limiting membrane (ILM). SCF immunoreactivity was also confined to the inner retina and increased significantly between 7 and 12 WG. The level of both ligands declined by 22 WG. A layer of CXCR4(+) and c-Kit(+) precursors, some of which coexpressed CD39, existed in the inner retina from 7 to 12 WG. With migration, c-Kit was downregulated, whereas CD39(+) cells continued to express CXCR4 as they formed cords. With canalization, CXCR4 expression was downregulated.

CONCLUSIONS

Embryonic human retina has a pool of precursors (CXCR4(+) and c-Kit(+)) that enlarged centrifugally during fetal development. From this pool emerges angioblasts, which migrate anteriorly into the nerve fiber layer where SDF-1 and SCF levels are highest. c-Kit expression declines with apparent migration, and CXCR4 expression declines with canalization of new vessels. Both SCF and SDF-1 are associated with the differentiation of retinal precursors into angioblasts and their migration to sites of vessel assembly.

Hyperoxia inhibits several critical aspects of vascular development

Normal human retinal vascular development uses angiogenesis and vasculogenesis, both of which are interrupted in the vaso-obliteration phase of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Canine oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) closely resembles human ROP. Canine retinal endothelial cells (ECs) and angioblasts were used to model OIR and characterize the effects of hyperoxia on angiogenesis and vasculogenesis. Cell cycle analysis showed that hyperoxia reduced the number of G1 phase cells and showed increased arrest in S phase for both cell types. Migration of ECs was significantly inhibited in hyperoxia (P < 0.01). Hyperoxia disrupted the cytoskeleton of angioblasts but not ECs after 2 days. Differentiation of angioblasts into ECs (determined by acetylated low-density lipoprotein uptake) was evaluated after basic fibroblast growth factor treatment. Differentiation of angioblasts into pericytes was determined by smooth muscle actin expression after treatment with platelet-derived growth factor. Differentiation into ECs was significantly inhibited by hyperoxia (P < 0.0001). The percentage of CXCR4(+) cells (a marker for retinal vascular precursors) increased in both treatment groups after hyperoxia. These data show novel mechanisms of hyperoxia-induced disruption of vascular development.

The initial fetal human retinal vasculature develops by vasculogenesis

There is increasing evidence that the hemangioblast, a common progenitor for hematopoietic cells and endothelial cells, participates in embryonic and extra-embryonic vasculogenesis in some organs. Whether resident angioblasts or endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) contribute to human retinal vasculogenesis is still a matter of controversy. To address this controversy, fetal human retinas of 6-23 weeks gestation (WG) were examined using immunohistochemistry and a panel of antibodies against endothelial cell markers (CD34, CD31), a marker for retinal angioblasts and endothelium (CD39/ecto-ADPase), and a marker for precursors and hemangioblasts (CXCR4). Confocal microscopic spectral analysis and double labeling with Ki67 was used to identify the proliferating cell types. In the inner neuroblastic layer of the 6-8 WG retina and in the putative ganglion cell layer in avascular regions of older eyes (14 WG-20 WG), scattered CD39+ angioblasts were well in advance of forming vasculature. There was a layer of CXCR4+ cells in the inner retina that was reduced in size with development. As blood vessels formed, CD39+ cells were always well in advance of the vascular front and they expressed CXCR4. This demonstrates that a pool of resident angioblasts express CD39 and CXCR4 as they differentiate and participate in vasculogenesis in the fetal human. They retain expression of CD39 as endothelial cells in the newly formed retinal vasculature but they down-regulate CXCR4 expression.