Plasma renin-angiotensin system-regulating aminopeptidase activities are modified in early stage Alzheimer's disease and show gender differences but are not related to apolipoprotein E genotype

Marine Invertebrates: A Promissory Still Unexplored Source of Inhibitors of Biomedically Relevant Metallo Aminopeptidases Belonging to the M1 and M17 Families

Proteolytic enzymes, also known as peptidases, are critical in all living organisms. Peptidases control the cleavage, activation, turnover, and synthesis of proteins and regulate many biochemical and physiological processes. They are also involved in several pathophysiological processes. Among peptidases, aminopeptidases catalyze the cleavage of the N-terminal amino acids of proteins or peptide substrates. They are distributed in many phyla and play critical roles in physiology and pathophysiology. Many of them are metallopeptidases belonging to the M1 and M17 families, among others. Some, such as M1 aminopeptidases N and A, thyrotropin-releasing hormone-degrading ectoenzyme, and M17 leucyl aminopeptidase, are targets for the development of therapeutic agents for human diseases, including cancer, hypertension, central nervous system disorders, inflammation, immune system disorders, skin pathologies, and infectious diseases, such as malaria. The relevance of aminopeptidases has driven the search and identification of potent and selective inhibitors as major tools to control proteolysis with an impact in biochemistry, biotechnology, and biomedicine. The present contribution focuses on marine invertebrate biodiversity as an important and promising source of inhibitors of metalloaminopeptidases from M1 and M17 families, with foreseen biomedical applications in human diseases. The results reviewed in the present contribution support and encourage further studies with inhibitors isolated from marine invertebrates in different biomedical models associated with the activity of these families of exopeptidases.

Impact of the Renin-Angiotensin System on the Pathogeny and Pharmacotherapeutics of Neurodegenerative Diseases

Brain neurodegenerative diseases (BND) are debilitating conditions that are especially characteristic of a certain period of life and considered major threats to human health. Current treatments are limited, meaning that there is a challenge in developing new options that can efficiently tackle the different components and pathophysiological processes of these conditions. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAS) is an endocrine axis with important peripheral physiological functions such as blood pressure and cardiovascular homeostasis, as well as water and sodium balance and systemic vascular resistance-functions which are well-documented. However, recent work has highlighted the paracrine and autocrine functions of RAS in different tissues, including the central nervous system (CNS). It is known that RAS hyperactivation has pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant effects, thus suggesting that its pharmacological modulation could be used in the management of these conditions. The present paper underlines the involvement of RAS and its components in the pathophysiology of BNDs such as Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), multiple sclerosis (MS), Huntington's disease (HD), motor neuron disease (MND), and prion disease (PRD), as well as the identification of drugs and pharmacologically active substances that act upon RAS, which could alleviate their symptomatology or evolution, and thus, contribute to novel therapeutic approaches.

Sex differences exist in brain renin-angiotensin system-regulating aminopeptidase activities in transplacental ethyl-nitrosourea-induced gliomas

INTRODUCTION

The renin angiotensin system (RAS) is emerging as an important target for the treatment of glioma. We had described that the local RAS is involved in vivo in tumor growth in the rat model of experimental C6 glioma implanted at the subcutaneous region, through the modification of several proteolytic regulatory enzymes of aminopeptidase type.

METHODS

We analyze RAS-regulating aminopeptidase activities in plasma and brain tissue of control male and female rats and rats with transplacental ethylnitrosourea-induced gliomas.

RESULTS

No differences were found either the mean total number of tumors per animal or the tumor volume between male and female animals. However, we have found increased levels in aspartyl aminopeptidase in both males and females and of aminopeptidase B only in males. On the contrary, decreased levels were found in aminopeptidase N and insulin-regulated aminopeptidase activities in both males and females, whereas aminopeptidase A only decreased in females. Decreased levels of aminopeptidase N, aminopeptidase B and insulin-regulated aminopeptidase were also shown in plasma of only female rats.

CONCLUSIONS

Under the complexity of RAS cascade, the changes found suggest the predominant actions of angiotensin III against a decreased action of angiotensin II and angiotensin IV. We conclude that angiotensin peptides are involved in tumor growth in this rat model of glioma and that their role in tumor growth can be analyzed through their corresponding proteolytic regulatory enzymes, which make them new and attractive therapeutic targets beyond the use or angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs).

Renin-Angiotensin System and Alzheimer's Disease Pathophysiology: From the Potential Interactions to Therapeutic Perspectives

New roles of the Renin-Angiotensin System (RAS), apart from fluid homeostasis and Blood Pressure (BP) regulation, are being progressively unveiled, since the discoveries of RAS alternative axes and local RAS in different tissues, including the brain. Brain RAS is reported to interact with pathophysiological mechanisms of many neurological and psychiatric diseases, including Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Even though AD is the most common cause of dementia worldwide, its pathophysiology is far from elucidated. Currently, no treatment can halt the disease course. Successive failures of amyloid-targeting drugs have challenged the amyloid hypothesis and increased the interest in the inflammatory and vascular aspects of AD. RAS compounds, both centrally and peripherally, potentially interact with neuroinflammation and cerebrovascular regulation. This narrative review discusses the AD pathophysiology and its possible interaction with RAS, looking forward to potential therapeutic approaches. RAS molecules affect BP, cerebral blood flow, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress. Angiotensin (Ang) II, via angiotensin type 1 receptors may promote brain tissue damage, while Ang-(1-7) seems to elicit neuroprotection. Several studies dosed RAS molecules in AD patients' biological material, with heterogeneous results. The link between AD and clinical conditions related to classical RAS axis overactivation (hypertension, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease) supports the hypothesized role of this system in AD. Additionally, RAStargeting drugs as Angiotensin Converting Enzyme inhibitors (ACEis) and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARBs) seem to exert beneficial effects on AD. Results of randomized controlled trials testing ACEi or ARBs in AD are awaited to elucidate whether AD-RAS interaction has implications on AD therapeutics.

Environmental Nanoparticles, SARS-CoV-2 Brain Involvement, and Potential Acceleration of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases in Young Urbanites Exposed to Air Pollution

Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases (AD, PD) have a pediatric and young adult onset in Metropolitan Mexico City (MMC). The SARS-CoV-2 neurotropic RNA virus is triggering neurological complications and deep concern regarding acceleration of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative processes already in progress. This review, based on our MMC experience, will discuss two major issues: 1) why residents chronically exposed to air pollution are likely to be more susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 systemic and brain effects and 2) why young people with AD and PD already in progress will accelerate neurodegenerative processes. Secondary mental consequences of social distancing and isolation, fear, financial insecurity, violence, poor health support, and lack of understanding of the complex crisis are expected in MMC residents infected or free of SARS-CoV-2. MMC residents with pre-SARS-CoV-2 accumulation of misfolded proteins diagnostic of AD and PD and metal-rich, magnetic nanoparticles damaging key neural organelles are an ideal host for neurotropic SARS-CoV-2 RNA virus invading the body through the same portals damaged by nanoparticles: nasal olfactory epithelium, the gastrointestinal tract, and the alveolar-capillary portal. We urgently need MMC multicenter retrospective-prospective neurological and psychiatric population follow-up and intervention strategies in place in case of acceleration of neurodegenerative processes, increased risk of suicide, and mental disease worsening. Identification of vulnerable populations and continuous effort to lower air pollution ought to be critical steps.

The comparative biochemistry of viruses and humans: an evolutionary path towards autoimmunity

Analyses of the peptide sharing between five common human viruses (Borna disease virus, influenza A virus, measles virus, mumps virus and rubella virus) and the human proteome highlight a massive viral vs. human peptide overlap that is mathematically unexpected. Evolutionarily, the data underscore a strict relationship between viruses and the origin of eukaryotic cells. Indeed, according to the viral eukaryogenesis hypothesis and in light of the endosymbiotic theory, the first eukaryotic cell (our lineage) originated as a consortium consisting of an archaeal ancestor of the eukaryotic cytoplasm, a bacterial ancestor of the mitochondria and a viral ancestor of the nucleus. From a pathologic point of view, the peptide sequence similarity between viruses and humans may provide a molecular platform for autoimmune crossreactions during immune responses following viral infections/immunizations.

Altered Serum Oxytocinase and Enkephalin-Degrading Aminopeptidase Activities in Patients With Fibromyalgia

Objectives:

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a chronic pain condition of unclear etiology. We have analyzed, for the first time, the activity of a broad spectrum of aminopeptidases (APs) in patients with FM and controls to investigate whether they are involved in the pathophysiology of this syndrome.

Method:

In this case–control study, we fluorometrically measured specific AP activities in serum samples of 75 patients with FM and 29 healthy controls. The predictive value of AP activities in FM was determined by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis.

Results:

Oxytocinase activity was higher in patients with FM than in controls ( p < .001). A subgroup of patients with FM ( n = 18; 24%) showed low levels of enkephalin-degrading aminopeptidase (EDA) activity when compared with the healthy controls ( p < .001) and with the rest of FM patients ( p < .001). There were no significant differences in the activity levels of aminopeptidase A, aminopeptidase B, aspartyl aminopeptidase, insulin-regulated aminopeptidase, pyroglutamyl aminopeptidase, or aminopeptidase N between FM patients and controls. According to ROC analysis, oxytocinase activity may be a good marker for differentiating individuals with FM from healthy subjects.

Conclusions:

Our findings show that serum oxytocinase activity is increased in patients with FM, which could alter the metabolism of peptides with analgesic effects such as oxytocin and enkephalins. The determination of serum oxytocinase activity may aid in FM diagnosis. Additionally, we have identified a subpopulation of FM patients with abnormally low serum EDA activity.

Effects of chronically high levels of aldosterone on different cognitive dimensions: an investigation in patients with primary aldosteronism

Primary aldosteronism is a natural model for chronic aldosterone excess in humans and associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression. Cognitive deficits are inherent to the symptomatology of depression and anxiety disorders. Mineralocorticoid receptors and aldosterone appear to play a role in memory. Aldosterone was additionally supposed to be a risk factor for cognitive decline in patients with essential hypertension. The objective of this study was to investigate possible effects of chronically high aldosterone concentrations on cognitive function. A range of cognitive dimensions were assessed in 19 patients (9 males, 10 females); mean age 47.1 (12.5) under standardized treatment and several rating scales for anxiety, depression, quality of life and sleep were administered. Cognitive parameters were compared to standard norms from a large, healthy standardization sample. Patients showed increased levels of anxiety and depression without meeting diagnostic criteria for a disorder. Besides a numerically lower attention score, patients did not show any significant differences in the cognitive dimensions. Anxiety and depression were negatively correlated with quantitative performance in males. In females, a negative correlation between sleep disturbances and abstract reasoning and a positive correlation with quantitative performance were found. Our data showed no specific effect of chronic aldosterone in the tested cognitive parameters overall at least in younger patients, but they indicate sexually dimorphic regulation processes.

Sex Differences in the Genetic Architecture of Alzheimer's Disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Summarize sex-specific contributors to the genetic architecture of Alzheimer's disease (AD).

RECENT FINDINGS

There are sex differences in the effects of Apolipoprotein E (APOE), genes along the APOE pathway, and genes along the neurotrophic signaling pathway in predicting AD. Reported sex differences are largely driven by stronger associations among females. Evidence also suggests that genetic predictors of amyloidosis are largely shared across sexes, while sex-specific genetic effects emerge downstream of amyloidosis and drive the clinical manifestation of AD.

SUMMARY

There is a lack of comprehensive assessments of sex differences in genome-wide analyses of AD and a need for more systematic reporting a sex-stratified genetic effects. The emerging emphasis on sex as a biological variable provides an opportunity for transdisciplinary collaborations aimed at addressing major analytical challenges that have hampered advancements in the field. Ultimately, sex-specific genetic association studies represent a logical first step towards precision medicine.

Angiotensin-III is Increased in Alzheimer's Disease in Association with Amyloid-β and Tau Pathology

Hyperactivity of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is associated with the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) believed to be mediated by angiotensin-II (Ang-II) activation of the angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT1R). We previously showed that angiotensin-converting enzyme-1 (ACE-1) activity, the rate-limiting enzyme in the production of Ang-II, is increased in human postmortem brain tissue in AD. Angiotensin-III (Ang-III) activates the AT1R and angiotensin type-2 receptor (AT2R), but its potential role in the pathophysiology of AD remains unexplored. We measured Ang-II and Ang-III levels by ELISA, and the levels and activities of aminopeptidase-A (AP-A) and aminopeptidase-N (AP-N) (responsible for the production and metabolism of Ang-III, respectively) in human postmortem brain tissue in the mid-frontal cortex (Brodmann area 9) in a cohort of AD (n = 90) and age-matched non-demented controls (n = 59), for which we had previous measurements of ACE-1 activity, Aβ level, and tau pathology (also in the mid-frontal cortex). We found that both Ang-II and Ang-III levels were significantly higher in AD compared to age-matched controls and that Ang-III, rather than Ang-II, was strongly associated with Aβ load and tau load. Levels of AP-A were significantly reduced in AD but AP-A enzyme activity was unchanged whereas AP-N activity was reduced in AD but AP-N protein level was unchanged. Together, these data indicate that the APA/Ang-III/APN/Ang-IV/AT4R pathway is dysregulated and that elevated Ang-III could contribute to the pathogenesis of AD.

A PCR-RFLP method for detection of the LNPEP encoding human insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP) rs4869317 polymorphism

Background & objectives:

Insulin regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP) has been related to certain pathologies such as breast cancer, Alzheimer's disease and septic shock. IRAP is encoded by the leucyl/cystinyl aminopeptidase (LNPEP) gene. The genetic variation in the LNPEP gene has been analyzed in relation with the mortality and vasopressin clearance in septic shock. The LNPEP rs4869317 SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) was the most significantly associated SNP with vasopressinase activity, being TT genotype associated with increased mortality. The objective of the present study was to develop a simple method to allow a quick and affordable genotyping for the rs4869317 SNP of LNPEP gene.

Methods:

Blood DNA samples were obtained from randomly selected healthy volunteers (n=28). A pair of primers was designed to amplify an 834 bp region of the LNPEP gene containing the rs4869317 SNP. The two alleles (T or A) were detected by digestion of the PCR products with the PacI restriction endonuclease. This enzyme only cuts the PCR products when the adenine is present in the SNP.

Results:

All individuals showed RFPL (restriction fragment length polymorphism) fragments for the expected genotypes (TT, TA or AA). The methodology was validated by sequencing of the amplified DNAs from several ‘T/T’ and ‘A/A’ homozygotes and ‘T/A’ heterozygotes. The results from both methods showed agreement.

Interpretation & conclusions:

The PCR-RFLP is a simple and reliable method that allows a quick genotyping for the rs4869317 SNP of LNPEP gene. The study of this polymorphism could be useful in future investigations to analyze the role of genetic variants of IRAP in several physiological/pathological conditions.

Sex differences in the aging pattern of renin-angiotensin system serum peptidases

Background

Serum peptidases, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2), neutral endopeptidase (NEP), aminopeptidase N (APN), and aminopeptidase A (APA), are important elements of the renin–angiotensin system (RAS). Dysregulation of these enzymes has been associated with hypertension and cardiovascular risk. In the present study, serum activities of RAS peptidases were analyzed to evaluate the existence of sexual differences, with a possible different pattern in pre- and post-andropausal/post-menopausal participants.

Methods

One hundred and eighteen healthy men and women between 41 and 70 years of age (58 women and 60 men) were recruited to participate in the study. Serum RAS-regulating enzymes were measured by spectrofluorimetry. Enzymatic activity was recorded as units of enzyme per milliliter of serum (U/mL).

Results

Significantly lower serum APA activity was observed in men with respect to women; no sex differences were detected for ACE, ACE2, NEP, or APN. Significantly lower APA and ACE serum activity were observed in older men compared to older women. In contrast, younger (<55 years) men had significantly higher values of NEP serum activity than younger women. Significantly lower ACE serum activity was detected in older men compared to younger men. In women, significantly higher ACE2 serum activity was observed in older women compared to younger women.

Conclusions

These results suggest a differential effect of aging on the activity of RAS enzymes in men and women, especially with respect to the breakpoint of andropausia/menopausia, on the critical serum enzymatic activities of the RAS, which could correlate with sexual differences in cardiovascular risk.