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Iyer SH, Yeh MY, Netzel L, Lindsey MG, Wallace M, Simeone KA, Simeone TA. Dietary and Metabolic Approaches for Treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, Affective Disorders and Cognitive Impairment Comorbid with Epilepsy: A Review of Clinical and Preclinical Evidence. Nutrients 2024; 16:553. [PMID: 38398876 PMCID: PMC10893388 DOI: 10.3390/nu16040553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy often occurs with other neurological disorders, such as autism, affective disorders, and cognitive impairment. Research indicates that many neurological disorders share a common pathophysiology of dysfunctional energy metabolism, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and gut dysbiosis. The past decade has witnessed a growing interest in the use of metabolic therapies for these disorders with or without the context of epilepsy. Over one hundred years ago, the high-fat, low-carbohydrate ketogenic diet (KD) was formulated as a treatment for epilepsy. For those who cannot tolerate the KD, other diets have been developed to provide similar seizure control, presumably through similar mechanisms. These include, but are not limited to, the medium-chain triglyceride diet, low glycemic index diet, and calorie restriction. In addition, dietary supplementation with ketone bodies, polyunsaturated fatty acids, or triheptanoin may also be beneficial. The proposed mechanisms through which these diets and supplements work to reduce neuronal hyperexcitability involve normalization of aberrant energy metabolism, dampening of inflammation, promotion of endogenous antioxidants, and reduction of gut dysbiosis. This raises the possibility that these dietary and metabolic therapies may not only exert anti-seizure effects, but also reduce comorbid disorders in people with epilepsy. Here, we explore this possibility and review the clinical and preclinical evidence where available.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Timothy A. Simeone
- Department of Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA; (S.H.I.); (K.A.S.)
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Yi W, Chen F, Yuan M, Wang C, Wang S, Wen J, Zou Q, Pu Y, Cai Z. High-fat diet induces cognitive impairment through repression of SIRT1/AMPK-mediated autophagy. Exp Neurol 2024; 371:114591. [PMID: 37898395 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2023.114591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Recent evidence suggests an association between a high-fat diet (HFD) and cognitive decline. HFD may reduce synaptic plasticity and cause tau hyperphosphorylation, but the mechanisms involved remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to explore whether Sirtuin1 (SIRT1)/AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway was involved in this pathogenic effect in the HFD exposed mice. METHODS C57BL/6 mice at 12 months of age were fed a standard (9% kcal fat) or high-fat (60% kcal fat) diet for 22 weeks, and Neuro-2a (N2a) cells were treated with normal culture medium or a palmitic acid (PA) medium (100uM) for 40 h. After that, cognitive function was tested by Morris water maze (MWM). The levels of proteins involved in SIRT1/AMPK pathway and autophagy were measured using western blotting and immunofluorescence. We also assessed the phosphorylation of tau protein and synapse. RESULTS The mice presented impaired learning and memory abilities. We further found decreased levels of synaptophysin (Syn) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), increased tau46 and phosphorylated tau protein, and damaged neurons in mice after HFD or in N2a cells treated with PA medium. Moreover, HFD can also reduce the expression of SIRT1, inhibit AMPK phosphorylation, and block autophagic flow in both mice and cells. After treating the cells with the SIRT1 agonist SRT1720, SIRT1/AMPK pathway and autophagy-related proteins were partially reversed and the number of PA-induced positive cells was alleviated in senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) staining. CONCLUSIONS HFD may inhibit the expression of SIRT1/AMPK pathway and disrupt autophagy flux, and result in tau hyperphosphorylation and synaptic dysfunction during aging, which ultimately lead to cognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenmin Yi
- The fifth Clinical College of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 402160, China; Department of Neurology, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China; Chongqing School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing 400799, China
| | - Fei Chen
- Department of Neurology, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China; Chongqing School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing 400799, China
| | - Minghao Yuan
- Department of Neurology, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China; Chongqing School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing 400799, China
| | - Chuanling Wang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China
| | - Shengyuan Wang
- Department of Neurology, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China; Chongqing School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing 400799, China
| | - Jie Wen
- Department of Neurology, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chongqing 400013, China
| | - Qian Zou
- Department of Neurology, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chongqing 400013, China
| | - Yinshuang Pu
- Department of Neurology, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chongqing 400013, China
| | - Zhiyou Cai
- Department of Neurology, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Chongqing 400013, China; Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China; Chongqing School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing 400799, China.
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Navalón-Monllor V, Soriano-Romaní L, Silva M, de Las Hazas MCL, Hernando-Quintana N, Suárez Diéguez T, Esteve PM, Nieto JA. Microbiota dysbiosis caused by dietetic patterns as a promoter of Alzheimer's disease through metabolic syndrome mechanisms. Food Funct 2023; 14:7317-7334. [PMID: 37470232 DOI: 10.1039/d3fo01257c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Microbiota dysbiosis and metabolic syndrome, consequences of a non-adequate diet, generate a feedback pathogenic state implicated in Alzheimer's disease development. The lower production of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) under dysbiosis status leads to lipid homeostasis deregulation and decreases Angptl4 release and AMPK activation in the adipose tissue, promoting higher lipid storage (adipocyte hypertrophy) and cholesterol levels. Also, low SCFA generation reduces GPR41 and GPR43 receptor activation at the adipose tissue (increasing leptin release and leptin receptor resistance) and intestinal levels, reducing the release of GLP-1 and YPP. Therefore, lower satiety sensation and energy expenditure occur, promoting a weight gaining environment mediated by higher food intake and lipid storage, developing dyslipemia. In this context, higher glucose levels, together with higher free fatty acids in the bloodstream, promote glycolipotoxicity, provoking a reduction in insulin released, insulin receptor resistance, advanced glycation products (AGEs) and type 2 diabetes. Intestinal dysbiosis and low SCFAs reduce bacterial biodiversity, increasing lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-producing bacteria and intestinal barrier permeability. Higher amounts of LPS pass to the bloodstream (endotoxemia), causing a low-grade chronic inflammatory state characterized by higher levels of leptin, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, together with a reduced release of adiponectin and IL-10. At the brain and neuronal levels, the generated insulin resistance, low-grade chronic inflammation, leptin resistance, AGE production and LPS increase directly impact the secretase enzymes and tau hyperphosphorylation, creating an enabling environment for β-amyloid senile plaque and tau tangled formations and, as a consequence, Alzheimer's initiation, development and maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Navalón-Monllor
- Vithas Aguas Vivas Hospital, Carretera Alzira-Tavernes de Valldigna CV-50, Km 12, 46740, Carcaixent, Valencia, Spain
| | - Laura Soriano-Romaní
- Ainia Technological Centre, Calle Benjamin Franklin 5-11, Parque Tecnológico de Valencia, E46980, 15 Paterna, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Mariana Silva
- Bioactivity and Nutritional Immunology Group (BIOINUT), Faculty of Health Science, Universidad Internacional de Valencia (VIU), Calle Pintor Sorolla 21, E46002, Valencia, Spain
| | - María-Carmen López de Las Hazas
- Laboratory of Epigenetics of Lipid Metabolism, Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados (IMDEA)-Alimentación, CEI UAM+CSIC, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Teodoro Suárez Diéguez
- Academic Area of Nutrition, Institute of Health Sciences, Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo, Abasolo 600, Colonia Centro, Pachuca de Soto, E42000, Hidalgo, Mexico
| | - Pere Morell Esteve
- Bioactivity and Nutritional Immunology Group (BIOINUT), Faculty of Health Science, Universidad Internacional de Valencia (VIU), Calle Pintor Sorolla 21, E46002, Valencia, Spain
| | - Juan Antonio Nieto
- Ainia Technological Centre, Calle Benjamin Franklin 5-11, Parque Tecnológico de Valencia, E46980, 15 Paterna, Valencia, Spain.
- Bioactivity and Nutritional Immunology Group (BIOINUT), Faculty of Health Science, Universidad Internacional de Valencia (VIU), Calle Pintor Sorolla 21, E46002, Valencia, Spain
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Dietary energy restriction in neurological diseases: what's new? Eur J Nutr 2023; 62:573-588. [PMID: 36369305 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-022-03036-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Energy-restricted diet is a specific dietary regimen, including the continuous energy-restricted diet and the intermittent energy-restricted diet. It has been proven effective not only to reduce weight and extend the lifespan in animal models, but also to regulate the development and progression of various neurological diseases such as epilepsy, cerebrovascular diseases (stroke), neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease) and autoimmune diseases (multiple sclerosis). However, the mechanism in this field is still not clear and a systematic neurological summary is still missing. In this review, we first give a brief summary of the definition and mainstream strategies of energy restrictions. We then review evidence about the effects of energy-restricted diet from both animal models and human trials, and update the current understanding of mechanisms underlying the biological role of energy-restricted diet in the fight against neurological diseases. Our review thus contributes to the modification of dietary regimen and the search for special diet mimics.
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Fujimoto K, Totani Y, Nakai J, Chikamoto N, Namiki K, Hatakeyama D, Ito E. Identification of Putative Molecules for Adiponectin and Adiponectin Receptor and Their Roles in Learning and Memory in Lymnaea stagnalis. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:biology12030375. [PMID: 36979067 PMCID: PMC10045044 DOI: 10.3390/biology12030375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
Adiponectin enhances insulin sensitivity, which improves cognition in mammals. How adiponectin affects the mechanism’s underlying cognition, however, remains unknown. We hypothesized that experiments using the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis, which has long been used in learning and memory studies and in which the function of insulin-like peptides affect learning and memory, could clarify the basic mechanisms by which adiponectin affects cognition. We first identified putative molecules of adiponectin and its receptor in Lymnaea. We then examined their distribution in the central nervous system and changes in their expression levels when hemolymph glucose concentrations were intentionally decreased by food deprivation. We also applied an operant conditioning protocol of escape behavior to Lymnaea and examined how the expression levels of adiponectin and its receptor changed after the conditioned behavior was established. The results demonstrate that adiponectin and adiponectin’s receptor expression levels were increased in association with a reduced concentration of hemolymph glucose and that expression levels of both adiponectin and insulin-like peptide receptors were increased after the conditioning behavior was established. Thus, the involvement of the adiponectin-signaling cascade in learning and memory in Lymnaea was suggested to occur via changes in the glucose concentrations and the activation of insulin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanta Fujimoto
- Department of Biology, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8480, Japan
| | - Yuki Totani
- Department of Biology, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8480, Japan
| | - Junko Nakai
- Department of Biology, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8480, Japan
| | | | - Kengo Namiki
- Department of Biology, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8480, Japan
| | - Dai Hatakeyama
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
| | - Etsuro Ito
- Department of Biology, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8480, Japan
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, School of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
- Correspondence:
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Branched-Chain Amino Acids Are Linked with Alzheimer's Disease-Related Pathology and Cognitive Deficits. Cells 2022; 11:cells11213523. [PMID: 36359919 PMCID: PMC9658564 DOI: 10.3390/cells11213523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible neurodegenerative disorder with a complex pathophysiology. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a strong risk factor for AD that shares similar abnormal features including metabolic dysregulation and brain pathology such as amyloid and/or Tau deposits. Emerging evidence suggests that circulating branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are associated with T2D. While excess BCAAs are shown to be harmful to neurons, its connection to AD is poorly understood. Here we show that individuals with AD have elevated circulating BCAAs and their metabolites compared to healthy individuals, and that a BCAA metabolite is correlated with the severity of dementia. APPSwe mouse model of AD also displayed higher plasma BCAAs compared to controls. In pursuit of understanding a potential causality, BCAA supplementation to HT-22 neurons was found to reduce genes critical for neuronal health while increasing phosphorylated Tau. Moreover, restricting BCAAs from diet delayed cognitive decline and lowered AD-related pathology in the cortex and hippocampus in APP/PS1 mice. BCAA restriction for two months was sufficient to correct glycemic control and increased/restored dopamine that were severely reduced in APP/PS1 controls. Treating 5xFAD mice that show early brain pathology with a BCAA-lowering compound recapitulated the beneficial effects of BCAA restriction on brain pathology and neurotransmitters including norepinephrine and serotonin. Collectively, this study reveals a positive association between circulating BCAAs and AD. Our findings suggest that BCAAs impair neuronal functions whereas BCAA-lowering alleviates AD-related pathology and cognitive decline, thus establishing a potential causal link between BCAAs and AD progression.
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Guzzetta KE, Cryan JF, O’Leary OF. Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis Regulation of Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis. Brain Plast 2022; 8:97-119. [DOI: 10.3233/bpl-220141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The birth, maturation, and integration of new neurons in the adult hippocampus regulates specific learning and memory processes, responses to stress, and antidepressant treatment efficacy. This process of adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sensitive to environmental stimuli, including peripheral signals from certain cytokines, hormones, and metabolites, which can promote or hinder the production and survival of new hippocampal neurons. The trillions of microorganisms resident to the gastrointestinal tract and collectively known as the gut microbiota, also demonstrate the ability to modulate adult hippocampal neurogenesis. In doing so, the microbiota-gut-brain axis can influence brain functions regulated by adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Unlike the hippocampus, the gut microbiota is highly accessible to direct interventions, such as prebiotics, probiotics, and antibiotics, and can be manipulated by lifestyle choices including diet. Therefore, understanding the pathways by which the gut microbiota shapes hippocampal neurogenesis may reveal novel targets for non-invasive therapeutics to treat disorders in which alterations in hippocampal neurogenesis have been implicated. This review first outlines the factors which influence both the gut microbiome and adult hippocampal neurogenesis, with cognizance that these effects might happen either independently or due to microbiota-driven mechanisms. We then highlight approaches for investigating the regulation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis by the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Finally, we summarize the current evidence demonstrating the gut microbiota’s ability to influence adult hippocampal neurogenesis, including mechanisms driven through immune pathways, microbial metabolites, endocrine signalling, and the nervous system, and postulate implications for these effects in disease onset and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine E. Guzzetta
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Ireland
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - John F. Cryan
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Ireland
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Olivia F. O’Leary
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Ireland
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland
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Can dietary patterns prevent cognitive impairment and reduce Alzheimer's disease risk: exploring the underlying mechanisms of effects. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 135:104556. [PMID: 35122783 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the fastest growing cognitive decline-related neurological diseases. To date, effective curative strategies have remained elusive. A growing body of evidence indicates that dietary patterns have significant effects on cognitive function and the risk of developing AD. Previous studies on the association between diet and AD risk have mainly focused on individual food components and specific nutrients, and the mechanisms responsible for the beneficial effects of dietary patterns on AD are not well understood. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the effects of dietary patterns, including the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet), dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) diet, Mediterranean-DASH diet intervention for neurological delay (MIND), ketogenic diet, caloric restriction, intermittent fasting, methionine restriction, and low-protein and high-carbohydrate diet, on cognitive impairment and summarizes the underlying mechanisms by which dietary patterns attenuate cognitive impairment, especially highlighting the modulation of dietary patterns on cognitive impairment through gut microbiota. Furthermore, considering the variability in individual metabolic responses to dietary intake, we put forward a framework to develop personalized dietary patterns for people with cognitive disorders or AD based on individual gut microbiome compositions.
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Trushina E, Trushin S, Hasan MF. Mitochondrial complex I as a therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease. Acta Pharm Sin B 2022; 12:483-495. [PMID: 35256930 PMCID: PMC8897152 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prominent form of dementia in the elderly, has no cure. Strategies focused on the reduction of amyloid beta or hyperphosphorylated Tau protein have largely failed in clinical trials. Novel therapeutic targets and strategies are urgently needed. Emerging data suggest that in response to environmental stress, mitochondria initiate an integrated stress response (ISR) shown to be beneficial for healthy aging and neuroprotection. Here, we review data that implicate mitochondrial electron transport complexes involved in oxidative phosphorylation as a hub for small molecule-targeted therapeutics that could induce beneficial mitochondrial ISR. Specifically, partial inhibition of mitochondrial complex I has been exploited as a novel strategy for multiple human conditions, including AD, with several small molecules being tested in clinical trials. We discuss current understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in this counterintuitive approach. Since this strategy has also been shown to enhance health and life span, the development of safe and efficacious complex I inhibitors could promote healthy aging, delaying the onset of age-related neurodegenerative diseases.
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Key Words
- AD, Alzheimer's disease
- ADP, adenosine diphosphate
- AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
- AMP, adenosine monophosphate
- AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase
- APP/PS1, amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1
- ATP, adenosine triphosphate
- Alzheimer's disease
- Aβ, amyloid beta
- BBB, blood‒brain barrier
- BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor
- CP2, tricyclic pyrone compound two
- Complex I inhibitors
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- ETC, electron transport chain
- FADH2, flavin adenine dinucleotide
- FDG-PET, fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography
- GWAS, genome-wide association study
- HD, Huntington's disease
- HIF-1α, hypoxia induced factor 1 α
- Healthy aging
- ISR, integrated stress response
- Integrated stress response
- LTP, long term potentiation
- MCI, mild cognitive impairment
- MPTP, 1-methyl 4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine
- Mitochondria
- Mitochondria signaling
- Mitochondria targeted therapeutics
- NAD+ and NADH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
- NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells
- NRF2, nuclear factor E2-related factor 2
- Neuroprotection
- OXPHOS, oxidative phosphorylation
- PD, Parkinson's disease
- PGC1α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha
- PMF, proton-motive force
- RNAi, RNA interference
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- T2DM, type II diabetes mellitus
- TCA, the tricarboxylic acid cycle
- mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA
- mtUPR, mitochondrial unfolded protein response
- pTau, hyper-phosphorylated Tau protein
- ΔpH, proton gradient
- Δψm, mitochondrial membrane potential
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Kim CK, Sachdev PS, Braidy N. Recent Neurotherapeutic Strategies to Promote Healthy Brain Aging: Are we there yet? Aging Dis 2022; 13:175-214. [PMID: 35111369 PMCID: PMC8782556 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2021.0705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Owing to the global exponential increase in population ageing, there is an urgent unmet need to develop reliable strategies to slow down and delay the ageing process. Age-related neurodegenerative diseases are among the main causes of morbidity and mortality in our contemporary society and represent a major socio-economic burden. There are several controversial factors that are thought to play a causal role in brain ageing which are continuously being examined in experimental models. Among them are oxidative stress and brain inflammation which are empirical to brain ageing. Although some candidate drugs have been developed which reduce the ageing phenotype, their clinical translation is limited. There are several strategies currently in development to improve brain ageing. These include strategies such as caloric restriction, ketogenic diet, promotion of cellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) levels, removal of senescent cells, 'young blood' transfusions, enhancement of adult neurogenesis, stem cell therapy, vascular risk reduction, and non-pharmacological lifestyle strategies. Several studies have shown that these strategies can not only improve brain ageing by attenuating age-related neurodegenerative disease mechanisms, but also maintain cognitive function in a variety of pre-clinical experimental murine models. However, clinical evidence is limited and many of these strategies are awaiting findings from large-scale clinical trials which are nascent in the current literature. Further studies are needed to determine their long-term efficacy and lack of adverse effects in various tissues and organs to gain a greater understanding of their potential beneficial effects on brain ageing and health span in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chul-Kyu Kim
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing, School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Perminder S Sachdev
- Neuropsychiatric Institute, Euroa Centre, Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Nady Braidy
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing, School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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Zhang L, Xu H, Ding N, Li X, Chen X, Chen Z. Beneficial Effects on Brain Micro-Environment by Caloric Restriction in Alleviating Neurodegenerative Diseases and Brain Aging. Front Physiol 2021; 12:715443. [PMID: 34899367 PMCID: PMC8660583 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.715443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging and neurodegenerative diseases are frequently associated with the disruption of the extracellular microenvironment, which includes mesenchyme and body fluid components. Caloric restriction (CR) has been recognized as a lifestyle intervention that can improve long-term health. In addition to preventing metabolic disorders, CR has been shown to improve brain health owing to its enhancing effect on cognitive functions or retarding effect on the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. This article summarizes current findings regarding the neuroprotective effects of CR, which include the modulation of metabolism, autophagy, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. This review may offer future perspectives for brain aging interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Central CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Center for Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area, Guangzhou, China.,Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China.,Neuroscience and Neurorehabilitation Institute, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Huachong Xu
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ning Ding
- Key Laboratory of Central CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Medical College, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
| | - Xue Li
- School of Sports Medicine and Health, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaoyin Chen
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhuangfei Chen
- Medical College, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
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Kluever V, Fornasiero EF. Principles of brain aging: Status and challenges of modeling human molecular changes in mice. Ageing Res Rev 2021; 72:101465. [PMID: 34555542 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2021.101465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Due to the extension of human life expectancy, the prevalence of cognitive impairment is rising in the older portion of society. Developing new strategies to delay or attenuate cognitive decline is vital. For this purpose, it is imperative to understand the cellular and molecular events at the basis of brain aging. While several organs are directly accessible to molecular analysis through biopsies, the brain constitutes a notable exception. Most of the molecular studies are performed on postmortem tissues, where cell death and tissue damage have already occurred. Hence, the study of the molecular aspects of cognitive decline largely relies on animal models and in particular on small mammals such as mice. What have we learned from these models? Do these animals recapitulate the changes observed in humans? What should we expect from future mouse studies? In this review we answer these questions by summarizing the state of the research that has addressed cognitive decline in mice from several perspectives, including genetic manipulation and omics strategies. We conclude that, while extremely valuable, mouse models have limitations that can be addressed by the optimal design of future studies and by ensuring that results are cross-validated in the human context.
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Yanai S, Endo S. Functional Aging in Male C57BL/6J Mice Across the Life-Span: A Systematic Behavioral Analysis of Motor, Emotional, and Memory Function to Define an Aging Phenotype. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:697621. [PMID: 34408644 PMCID: PMC8365336 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.697621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging is characterized generally by progressive and overall physiological decline of functions and is observed in all animals. A long line of evidence has established the laboratory mouse as the prime model of human aging. However, relatively little is known about the detailed behavioral and functional changes that occur across their lifespan, and how this maps onto the phenotype of human aging. To better understand age-related changes across the life-span, we characterized functional aging in male C57BL/6J mice of five different ages (3, 6, 12, 18, and 22 months of age) using a multi-domain behavioral test battery. Spatial memory and physical activities, including locomotor activity, gait velocity, and grip strength progressively declined with increasing age, although at different rates; anxiety-like behaviors increased with aging. Estimated age-related patterns showed that these functional alterations across ages are non-linear, and the patterns are unique for each behavioral trait. Physical function progressively declines, starting as early as 6 months of age in mice, while cognitive function begins to decline later, with considerable impairment present at 22 months of age. Importantly, functional aging of male C57BL/6J mouse starts at younger relative ages compared to when it starts in humans. Our study suggests that human-equivalent ages of mouse might be better determined on the basis of its functional capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuichi Yanai
- Aging Neuroscience Research Team, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shogo Endo
- Aging Neuroscience Research Team, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo, Japan
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Fedotova АА, Tiaglik АB, Semyanov АV. Effect of Diet as a Factor of Exposome
on Brain Function. J EVOL BIOCHEM PHYS+ 2021. [DOI: 10.1134/s0022093021030108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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15
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Vinuesa A, Pomilio C, Gregosa A, Bentivegna M, Presa J, Bellotto M, Saravia F, Beauquis J. Inflammation and Insulin Resistance as Risk Factors and Potential Therapeutic Targets for Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:653651. [PMID: 33967682 PMCID: PMC8102834 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.653651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Overnutrition and modern diets containing high proportions of saturated fat are among the major factors contributing to a low-grade state of inflammation, hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia. In the last decades, the global rise of type 2 diabetes and obesity prevalence has elicited a great interest in understanding how changes in metabolic function lead to an increased risk for premature brain aging and the development of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Cognitive impairment and decreased neurogenic capacity could be a consequence of metabolic disturbances. In these scenarios, the interplay between inflammation and insulin resistance could represent a potential therapeutic target to prevent or ameliorate neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment. The present review aims to provide an update on the impact of metabolic stress pathways on AD with a focus on inflammation and insulin resistance as risk factors and therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angeles Vinuesa
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carlos Pomilio
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Amal Gregosa
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Melisa Bentivegna
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jessica Presa
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Melina Bellotto
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Flavia Saravia
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juan Beauquis
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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16
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Rodríguez M, Pintado C, Torrillas-de la Cal R, Moltó E, Gallardo N, Andrés A, Arribas C. Ageing alters the lipid sensing process in the hypothalamus of Wistar rats. Effect of food restriction. Nutr Neurosci 2021; 25:1509-1523. [PMID: 33544062 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2021.1872990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Lipids regulate a wide range of biological processes. The mechanisms by which fatty acids (FA) and its metabolites influence the hypothalamic regulation of energy homeostasis have been highly studied. However, the effect of ageing and food restriction (FR) on this process is unknown. METHODS Herein, we analyzed the gene expression, protein and phosphorylation levels of hypothalamic enzymes and transcription factors related to lipid metabolism. Experiments were performed in male Wistar rats of 3-, 8- and 24-month-old Wistar rats fed ad libitum (AL), as ageing model. Besides, 5- and 21-month-old rats were subjected to a moderate FR protocol (equivalent to ≈ 80% of normal food intake) for three months before the sacrifice. RESULTS Aged Wistar rats showed a situation of chronic lipid excess as a result of an increase in de novo FA synthesis and FA levels that reach the brain, contributing likely to the development of central leptin and insulin resistance. We observe a hypothalamic downregulation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD1) and an increase of carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1c (CPT1c) expression. DISCUSSION Our results suggest an impairment in the physiological lipid sensing system of aged Wistar rats, which would alter the balance of the intracellular mobilization and trafficking of lipids between the mitochondria and the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) in the hypothalamus, leading probably to the development of neurolipotoxicity in aged rats. Lastly, FR can only partially restore this imbalance.Schematic representation of the fate of LCFA-CoA in the hypothalamus of young and old rats. Blood circulating LCFAs in young Wistar rats reach the hypothalamus, where they are esterified to LCFA-CoA. Into glial cells or neurons, LCFA-CoA are driven to mitochondria (CPT1a) or ER (CPT1c) where could be desaturated by SDC1 and, thereby, converted into structural and signaling unsaturated lipids as oleic acid, related with neuronal myelinization and differentiation. However, the excess of LCFA that reach to the hypothalamus in old animals, could generate an increase in LCFA-CoA, which together with an increase in CPT1c levels, could favor the capture of LCFA-CoA to the ER. The decrease in the levels of SCD1 in old rats would decrease FA unsaturation degree that could trigger lipotoxicity process and neurodegeneration, both related to the development of neurodegenerative diseases linked to age.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Rodríguez
- Biochemistry Section, Faculty of Biochemistry and Environmental Sciences and Regional Centre for Biomedical Research, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Cristina Pintado
- Biochemistry Section, Faculty of Biochemistry and Environmental Sciences and Regional Centre for Biomedical Research, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Rodrigo Torrillas-de la Cal
- Biochemistry Section, Faculty of Biochemistry and Environmental Sciences and Regional Centre for Biomedical Research, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Eduardo Moltó
- Biochemistry Section, Faculty of Biochemistry and Environmental Sciences and Regional Centre for Biomedical Research, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Nilda Gallardo
- Biochemistry Section, Faculty of Science and Chemical Technologies and Regional Centre for Biomedical Research, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Antonio Andrés
- Biochemistry Section, Faculty of Science and Chemical Technologies and Regional Centre for Biomedical Research, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Carmen Arribas
- Biochemistry Section, Faculty of Biochemistry and Environmental Sciences and Regional Centre for Biomedical Research, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
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Uddin MS, Rahman MM, Sufian MA, Jeandet P, Ashraf GM, Bin-Jumah MN, Mousa SA, Abdel-Daim MM, Akhtar MF, Saleem A, Amran MS. Exploring the New Horizon of AdipoQ in Obesity-Related Alzheimer's Dementia. Front Physiol 2021; 11:567678. [PMID: 33584324 PMCID: PMC7873563 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.567678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, which causes abnormalities in learning, thinking, memory, as well as behavior. Generally, symptoms of AD develop gradually and aggravate over time, and consequently severely interfere with daily activities. Furthermore, obesity is one of the common risk factors for dementia. Dysregulation of adipokine and adipocyte dysfunction are assumed to be accountable for the high risk of obesity in people that develop many related disorders such as AD. Moreover, it has been observed that the dysfunction of adipose is connected with changes in brain metabolism, brain atrophy, cognitive decline, impaired mood, neuroinflammation, impaired insulin signaling, and neuronal dysfunction in people with obesity. Conversely, the pathological mechanisms, as well as the molecular players which are involved in this association, have been unclear until now. In this article, we discuss the impact of adiponectin (AdipoQ) on obesity-related Alzheimer's dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md. Sahab Uddin
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Pharmakon Neuroscience Research Network, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Motiar Rahman
- Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology (SIAT), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shenzhen, China
| | - Mohammad Abu Sufian
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Pharmakon Neuroscience Research Network, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Philippe Jeandet
- Research Unit, Induced Resistance and Plant Bioprotection, EA 4707, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Faculty of Sciences, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims Cedex, France
| | - Ghulam Md. Ashraf
- Pre-clinical Research Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - May N. Bin-Jumah
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shaker A. Mousa
- Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, New York, NY, United States
| | - Mohamed M. Abdel-Daim
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Muhammad Furqan Akhtar
- Riphah Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Riphah International University, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Ammara Saleem
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Md. Shah Amran
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Abstract
Life expectancy in most developed countries has been rising over the past century. In the UK alone, there are about 12 million people over 65 years old and centenarians have increased by 85% in the past 15 years. As a result of the ageing population, which is due mainly to improvements in medical treatments, public health, improved housing and lifestyle choices, there is an associated increase in the prevalence of pathological conditions, such as metabolic disorders, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, many types of cancer and others. Statistics suggest that nearly 54% of elderly people in the UK live with at least two chronic conditions, revealing the urgency for identifying interventions that can prevent and/or treat such disorders. Non-pharmacological, dietary interventions such as energetic restriction (ER) and methionine restriction (MR) have revealed promising outcomes in increasing longevity and preventing and/or reversing the development of ageing-associated disorders. In this review, we discuss the evidence and mechanisms that are involved in these processes. Fibroblast growth factor 1 and hydrogen sulphide are important molecules involved in the effects of ER and MR in the extension of life span. Their role is also associated with the prevention of metabolic and cognitive disorders, highlighting these interventions as promising modulators for improvement of health span.
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Sánchez-Melgar A, Albasanz JL, Pallàs M, Martín M. Adenosine Metabolism in the Cerebral Cortex from Several Mice Models during Aging. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21197300. [PMID: 33023260 PMCID: PMC7582336 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21197300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2020] [Revised: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenosine is a neuromodulator that has been involved in aging and neurodegenerative diseases as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In the present work, we analyzed the possible modulation of purine metabolites, 5’nucleotidase (5′NT) and adenosine deaminase (ADA) activities, and adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and its phosphorylated form during aging in the cerebral cortex. Three murine models were used: senescence-accelerated mouse-resistant 1 (SAMR1, normal senescence), senescence-accelerated mouse-prone 8 (SAMP8, a model of AD), and the wild-type C57BL/6J (model of aging) mice strains. Glutamate and excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) levels were also measured in these animals. HPLC, Western blotting, and enzymatic activity evaluation were performed to this aim. 5′-Nucleotidase (5′NT) activity was decreased at six months and recovered at 12 months in SAMP8 while opposite effects were observed in SAMR1 at the same age, and no changes in C57BL/6J mice. ADA activity significantly decreased from 3 to 12 months in the SAMR1 mice strain, while a significant decrease from 6 to 12 months was observed in the SAMP8 mice strain. Regarding purine metabolites, xanthine and guanosine levels were increased at six months in SAMR1 without significant differences in SAMP8 mice. In C57BL/6J mice, inosine and xanthine were increased, while adenosine decreased, from 4 to 24 months. The AMPK level was decreased at six months in SAMP8 without significant changes nor in SAMR1 or C57BL/6J strains. Glutamate and EAAT2 levels were also modulated during aging. Our data show a different modulation of adenosine metabolism participants in the cerebral cortex of these animal models. Interestingly, the main differences between SAMR1 and SAMP8 mice were found at six months of age, SAMP8 being the most affected strain. As SAMP8 is an AD model, results suggest that adenosinergic metabolism is involved in the neurodegeneration of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Sánchez-Melgar
- Department of Inorganic, Organic and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemical and Technological Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, School of Medicine of Ciudad Real, Regional Center of Biomedical Research (CRIB), 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain; (A.S.-M.); (M.M.)
| | - José Luis Albasanz
- Department of Inorganic, Organic and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemical and Technological Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, School of Medicine of Ciudad Real, Regional Center of Biomedical Research (CRIB), 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain; (A.S.-M.); (M.M.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Mercè Pallàs
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Mairena Martín
- Department of Inorganic, Organic and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemical and Technological Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, School of Medicine of Ciudad Real, Regional Center of Biomedical Research (CRIB), 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain; (A.S.-M.); (M.M.)
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20
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Xie K, Kapetanou M, Sidiropoulou K, Bano D, Gonos ES, Djordjevic AM, Ehninger D. Signaling pathways of dietary energy restriction and metabolism on brain physiology and in age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Mech Ageing Dev 2020; 192:111364. [PMID: 32991920 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2020.111364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Several laboratory animal models have shown that dietary energy restriction (ER) can promote longevity and improve various health aspects in old age. However, whether the entire spectrum of ER-induced short- and long-term physiological and metabolic adaptions is translatable to humans remains to be determined. In this review article, we present recent evidence towards the elucidation of the impact of ER on brain physiology and in age-related neurodegenerative diseases. We also discuss modulatory influences of ER on metabolism and overall on human health, limitations of current experimental designs as well as future perspectives for ER trials in humans. Finally, we summarize signaling pathways and processes known to be affected by both aging and ER with a special emphasis on the link between ER and cellular proteostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kan Xie
- Molecular and Cellular Cognition Lab, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Venusberg-Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Marianna Kapetanou
- Institute of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 48 Vassileos Constantinou Ave., Athens, 11635, Greece
| | | | - Daniele Bano
- Aging and Neurodegeneration Lab, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Venusberg-Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Efstathios S Gonos
- Institute of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 48 Vassileos Constantinou Ave., Athens, 11635, Greece
| | - Aleksandra Mladenovic Djordjevic
- Department of Neurobiology, Institute for Biological Research 'Sinisa Stankovic', University of Belgrade, National Institute of Republic of Serbia, Boulevard Despota Stefana 142, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Dan Ehninger
- Molecular and Cellular Cognition Lab, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Venusberg-Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany.
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21
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Li W, Wu M, Zhang Y, Wei X, Zang J, Liu Y, Wang Y, Gong CX, Wei W. Intermittent fasting promotes adult hippocampal neuronal differentiation by activating GSK-3β in 3xTg-AD mice. J Neurochem 2020; 155:697-713. [PMID: 32578216 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Moderate dietary restriction can ameliorate age-related chronic diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) by increasing the expression of neurotrophic factors and promoting neurogenesis in the brain. Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) signaling is essential for the coordination of progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation during brain development. The mechanisms by which GSK-3β is involved in dietary restriction-induced neurogenesis and cognitive improvement remain unclear. Six-month-old male 3xTg-AD and wild-type mice were fed on alternate days (intermittent fasting, IF) or ad libitum (AL) for 3 months. GSK-3β activity was regulated by bilaterally infusing lentiviral vectors carrying siRNA targeting GSK-3β into the dentate gyrus region of the hippocampus. Intermittent fasting promoted neuronal differentiation and maturation in the dentate gyrus and ameliorated recognized dysfunction in 3xTg-AD mice. These effects were reversed by siRNA targeting GSK-3β. After intermittent fasting, the insulin and protein kinase A signaling pathways were inhibited, while the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase and brain-derived neurotrophic factor pathways were activated. These findings suggest that intermittent fasting can promote neuronal differentiation and maturation in the hippocampus by activating GSK-3β, thus improving learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Key Laboratory of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Institute of Brain Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China.,Department of Pathology, The first people's hospital of foshan, Foshan, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Meijian Wu
- Key Laboratory of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Institute of Brain Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Yilin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Institute of Brain Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Xuemin Wei
- Key Laboratory of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Institute of Brain Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Jiankun Zang
- Key Laboratory of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Institute of Brain Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Yinghua Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Yanping Wang
- Key Laboratory of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Institute of Brain Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Cheng-Xin Gong
- Department of Neurochemistry, Inge Grundke-Iqbal Research Floor, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY, USA
| | - Wei Wei
- Key Laboratory of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of China, Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Institute of Brain Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
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Quan H, Koltai E, Suzuki K, Aguiar AS, Pinho R, Boldogh I, Berkes I, Radak Z. Exercise, redox system and neurodegenerative diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2020; 1866:165778. [PMID: 32222542 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2020.165778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Regular exercise induces a wide range of redox system-associated molecular adaptive responses to the nervous system. The intermittent induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during acute exercise sessions and the related upregulation of antioxidant/repair and housekeeping systems are associated with improved physiological function. Exercise-induced proliferation and differentiation of neuronal stem cells are ROS dependent processes. The increased production of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the regulation by regular exercise are dependent upon redox sensitive pathways. ROS are causative and associative factors of neurodegenerative diseases and regular exercise provides significant neuroprotective effects against Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and hypoxia/reperfusion related disorders. Regular exercise regulates redox homeostasis in the brain with complex multi-level molecular pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helong Quan
- Exercise and Metabolism Research Center, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua City, Zhejiang, China
| | - Erika Koltai
- Research Institute of Sport Science, University of Physical Education, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Katsuhiko Suzuki
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Saitama 359-1192, Japan
| | - Aderbal S Aguiar
- Research Group on Biology of Exercise, Department of Health Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Pinho
- Laboratory of Exercise Biochemistry in Health, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Istvan Boldogh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Istvan Berkes
- Research Institute of Sport Science, University of Physical Education, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zsolt Radak
- Research Institute of Sport Science, University of Physical Education, Budapest, Hungary; Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Saitama 359-1192, Japan.
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23
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Ma L, Wang R, Wang H, Zhang Y, Zhao Z. Long-term caloric restriction activates the myocardial SIRT1/AMPK/PGC-1α pathway in C57BL/6J male mice. Food Nutr Res 2020; 64:3668. [PMID: 32082101 PMCID: PMC7007760 DOI: 10.29219/fnr.v64.3668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2019] [Revised: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Caloric restriction (CR) can help in improving heart function. There is as yet no consensus on the mechanism of the effect of CR. Silent mating-type information regulation 1 (SIRT1), adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and mTOR are key players in metabolic stress management. We aimed to explore the effect of CR on the myocardial SIRT1/AMPK/mTOR pathway in mice. Methods Thirty-six 6-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into three groups: normal control group (NC group, n = 12), high-energy group (HE group, n = 12) and CR group (n = 12) according to different diets. After 11 months, western blot was used to examine proteins such as p-AMPK, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α), SIRT1, and p-mTOR, whereas real-time PCR was used to examine the expression of AMPK, PGC-1α, and SIRT1 transcripts. Results Compared to the HE group, the CR group displayed increased expression of myocardial p-AMPK protein, SIRT1 protein and mRNA, and PGC-1a mRNA. However, no difference was observed in the expression of p-mTOR protein and mTOR mRNA in the myocardium among the three groups. Conclusions CR improves the SIRT1/AMPK/PGC-1α pathway in mice myocardium with no effect on the mTOR pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Ma
- Department of Geriatrics, Xuanwu Hospital Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China.,Central Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital Capital Medical University, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Disease of Ministry of Education, Center of Alzheimer's Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Rong Wang
- Central Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital Capital Medical University, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Disease of Ministry of Education, Center of Alzheimer's Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Hongjuan Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Yanjing Medical College, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yaxin Zhang
- Department of Geriatrics, Xuanwu Hospital Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Zhiwei Zhao
- Central Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital Capital Medical University, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Disease of Ministry of Education, Center of Alzheimer's Disease, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China
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Olivares-Marin IK, González-Hernández JC, Madrigal-Perez LA. Resveratrol cytotoxicity is energy-dependent. J Food Biochem 2019; 43:e13008. [PMID: 31385323 DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.13008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Resveratrol is a phytochemical that may promote health. However, it has also been reported to be a toxic compound. The molecular mechanism by which resveratrol acts remains unclear. The inhibition of the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) pathway appears to be the molecular mechanism of resveratrol. Taking this into account, we propose that the cytotoxic properties of resveratrol depend on the energy (e.g., carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins) availability in the cells. In this regard, in a condition with low energy accessibility, resveratrol could enhance ATP starvation to lethal levels. In contrast, when cells are supplemented with high quantities of energy and resveratrol, the inhibition of OXPHOS might produce a low-energy environment, mimicking the beneficial effects of caloric restriction. This review suggests that investigating a possible complex relationship between caloric intake and the differential effects of resveratrol on OXPHOS may be justified. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: A low-calorie diet accompanied by significant levels of resveratrol might modify cellular bioenergetics, which could impact cellular viability and enhance the anti-cancer properties of resveratrol.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Luis Alberto Madrigal-Perez
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Microbiana, Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Ciudad Hidalgo, Ciudad Hidalgo, Mexico
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Gregosa A, Vinuesa Á, Todero MF, Pomilio C, Rossi SP, Bentivegna M, Presa J, Wenker S, Saravia F, Beauquis J. Periodic dietary restriction ameliorates amyloid pathology and cognitive impairment in PDAPP-J20 mice: Potential implication of glial autophagy. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 132:104542. [PMID: 31351172 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2019.104542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Revised: 06/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Dietary restriction promotes cell regeneration and stress resistance in multiple models of human diseases. One of the conditions that could potentially benefit from this strategy is Alzheimer's disease, a chronic, progressive and prevalent neurodegenerative disease. Although there are no effective pharmacological treatments for this pathology, lifestyle interventions could play therapeutic roles. Our objectives were 1) to evaluate the effects of dietary restriction on cognition, hippocampal amyloid deposition, adult neurogenesis and glial reactivity and autophagy in a mouse model of familial Alzheimer's disease, and 2) to analyze the role of glial cells mediating the effects of nutrient restriction in an in vitro model. Therefore, we established a periodic dietary restriction protocol in adult female PDAPP-J20 transgenic mice for 6 weeks. We found that dietary restriction, not involving overall caloric restriction, attenuated cognitive deficits, amyloid pathology and microglial reactivity in transgenic mice when compared with ad libitum-fed transgenic animals. Also, transgenic mice showed an increase in the astroglial positive signal for LC3, an autophagy-associated protein. In parallel, hippocampal adult neurogenesis was decreased in transgenic mice whereas dietary-restricted transgenic mice showed a neurogenic status similar to controls. In vitro experiments showed that nutrient restriction decreased astroglial and, indirectly, microglial NFκB activation in response to amyloid β peptides. Furthermore, nutrient restriction was able to preserve astroglial autophagic flux and to decrease intracellular amyloid after exposure to amyloid β peptides. Our results suggest neuroprotective effects of nutrient restriction in Alzheimer's disease, with modulation of glial activation and autophagy being potentially involved pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amal Gregosa
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Cátedra de Anatomía e Histología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ángeles Vinuesa
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Florencia Todero
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de los Procesos Inflamatorios, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX), CONICET, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carlos Pomilio
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Soledad P Rossi
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Cátedra de Bioquímica Humana, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Melisa Bentivegna
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jessica Presa
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Shirley Wenker
- Fundación Instituto Leloir-IIBA, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Flavia Saravia
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juan Beauquis
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Forny-Germano L, De Felice FG, Vieira MNDN. The Role of Leptin and Adiponectin in Obesity-Associated Cognitive Decline and Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurosci 2019; 12:1027. [PMID: 30692905 PMCID: PMC6340072 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.01027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cross-talk between adipose tissue and central nervous system (CNS) underlies the increased risk of obese people to develop brain diseases such as cognitive and mood disorders. Detailed mechanisms for how peripheral changes caused by adipose tissue accumulation in obesity impact the CNS to cause brain dysfunction are poorly understood. Adipokines are a large group of substances secreted by the white adipose tissue to regulate a wide range of homeostatic processes including, but not limited to, energy metabolism and immunity. Obesity is characterized by a generalized change in the levels of circulating adipokines due to abnormal accumulation and dysfunction of adipose tissue. Altered adipokine levels underlie complications of obesity as well as the increased risk for the development of obesity-related comorbidities such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we review the literature for the role of adipokines as key mediators of the communication between periphery and CNS in health and disease. We will focus on the actions of leptin and adiponectin, two of the most abundant and well studied adipokines, in the brain, with particular emphasis on how altered signaling of these adipokines in obesity may lead to cognitive dysfunction and augmented risk for Alzheimer's disease. A better understanding of adipokine biology in brain disorders may prove of major relevance to diagnostic, prevention and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leticia Forny-Germano
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fernanda G. De Felice
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry Leopoldo de Meis, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Department of Psychiatry, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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Ahn JH, Shin BN, Song M, Kim H, Park JH, Lee TK, Park CW, Park YE, Lee JC, Yong JH, Lee CH, Hwang IK, Won MH, Lee YL. Intermittent fasting increases the expressions of SODs and catalase in granule and polymorphic cells and enhances neuroblast dendrite complexity and maturation in the adult gerbil dentate gyrus. Mol Med Rep 2019; 19:1721-1727. [PMID: 30628688 PMCID: PMC6390044 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2019.9822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Intermittent fasting (ImF) is known to reduce oxidative stress and affects adult neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. However, it is unknown how ImF affects endogenous antioxidants expressions, cell proliferation, and neuroblast differentiation and their dendrite remodeling over 3 months in the dentate gyrus of adult gerbils. The present study subjected 6‑month old male gerbils to a normal diet or alternate‑day ImF for 1, 2 and 3 months. Changes in body weight were not significantly different between gerbils fed a normal diet and on ImF. The present study also investigated the effects of ImF on antioxidant enzymes [superoxide dismutase (SOD)‑1, SOD2 and catalase] using immunohistochemistry, and endogenous cell proliferation, neuroblast differentiation and neuroblast dendrite complexity by using Ki67 (a cell proliferation marker) and doublecortin (neuroblast differentiation marker) immunohistochemistry in the dentate gyrus. SOD1, SOD2 and CAT immunoreactivities were shown in cells in the granule cell and polymorphic layers. SOD1, SOD2 and catalase immunoreactivity in the cells peaked at 2, 1 and 1 month, respectively, following ImF. Cell proliferation was ~250, 129 and 186% of the control, at 1, 2 and 3 months of ImF, respectively. Neuroblast differentiation was ~41, 32 and 12% of the control, at 1, 2 and 3 months of ImF, respectively, indicating that dendrites of neuroblasts were more arborized and developed at 3 months of ImF. Taken together, these results indicate that ImF for 3 months improves endogenous SOD1, SOD2 and catalase expressions and enhances cell proliferation, and neuroblast dendrites complexity and maturation in the adult gerbil dentate gyrus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hyeon Ahn
- Department of Biomedical Science and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24252, Republic of Korea
| | - Bich Na Shin
- Danchunok Company, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24210, Republic of Korea
| | - Minah Song
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunjung Kim
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Joon Ha Park
- Department of Biomedical Science and Research Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24252, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Kyeong Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Cheol Woo Park
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Eun Park
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Chul Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun-Hwan Yong
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Dongnam Health University, Suwon, Gyeonggi 16238, Republic of Korea
| | - Choong-Hyun Lee
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheonan, Chungcheongnam 31116, Republic of Korea
| | - In Koo Hwang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Moo-Ho Won
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Yun Lyul Lee
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine and Institute of Neurodegeneration and Neuroregeneration, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24252, Republic of Korea
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