Low expression of asparagine synthetase in lymphoid blasts precludes its role in sensitivity to L-asparaginase

Rewired glutamate metabolism diminishes cytostatic action of L-asparaginase

Tumor cells often adapt to amino acid deprivation through metabolic rewiring, compensating for the loss with alternative amino acids/substrates. We have described such a scenario in leukemic cells treated with L-asparaginase (ASNase). Clinical effect of ASNase is based on nutrient stress achieved by its dual enzymatic action which leads to depletion of asparagine and glutamine and is accompanied with elevated aspartate and glutamate concentrations in serum of acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients. We showed that in these limited conditions glutamate uptake compensates for the loss of glutamine availability. Extracellular glutamate flux detection confirms its integration into the TCA cycle and its participation in nucleotide and glutathione synthesis. Importantly, it is glutamate-driven de novo synthesis of glutathione which is the essential metabolic pathway necessary for glutamate's pro-survival effect. In vivo findings support this effect by showing that inhibition of glutamate transporters enhances the therapeutic effect of ASNase. In summary, ASNase induces elevated extracellular glutamate levels under nutrient stress, which leads to a rewiring of intracellular glutamate metabolism and has a negative impact on ASNase treatment.

Production Process Optimization of Recombinant Erwinia carotovoral-Asparaginase II in Escherichia coli Fed-Batch Cultures and Analysis of Antileukemic Potential

The aims of this work were to optimize the production of Erwinia carotovoral-asparaginase II enzyme in Escherichia coli by different fed-batch cultivation strategies using a benchtop bioreactor and to evaluate the therapeutic potential of the recombinant enzyme against different acute lymphoblastic leukemia cell lines. The highest enzyme activities (∼98,000 U/L) were obtained in cultures using the DO-stat feeding strategy with induction in 18 h of culture. Under these experimental conditions, the maximum values for recombinant l-asparaginase II (rASNase) yield per substrate, rASNase yield per biomass, and productivity were approximately 1204 U/gglucose, 3660 U/gcells, and 3260 U/(L·h), respectively. This condition was efficient for achieving high yields of the recombinant enzyme, which was purified and used in in vitro antileukemic potential tests. Of all the leukemic cell lines tested, RS4;11 showed the highest sensitivity to rASNase, with an IC50 value of approximately 0.0006 U/mL and more than 70% apoptotic cells. The study demonstrated that the cultivation strategies used were efficient for obtaining high yield and productivity of rASNase with therapeutic potential inasmuch as cytotoxic activity and induction of apoptosis were demonstrated for this protein.

Single-cell systems pharmacology identifies development-driven drug response and combination therapy in B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Leukemia can arise at various stages of the hematopoietic differentiation hierarchy, but the impact of developmental arrest on drug sensitivity is unclear. Applying network-based analyses to single-cell transcriptomes of human B cells, we define genome-wide signaling circuitry for each B cell differentiation stage. Using this reference, we comprehensively map the developmental states of B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL), revealing its strong correlation with sensitivity to asparaginase, a commonly used chemotherapeutic agent. Single-cell multi-omics analyses of primary B-ALL blasts reveal marked intra-leukemia heterogeneity in asparaginase response: resistance is linked to pre-pro-B-like cells, with sensitivity associated with the pro-B-like population. By targeting BCL2, a driver within the pre-pro-B-like cell signaling network, we find that venetoclax significantly potentiates asparaginase efficacy in vitro and in vivo. These findings demonstrate a single-cell systems pharmacology framework to predict effective combination therapies based on intra-leukemia heterogeneity in developmental state, with potentially broad applications beyond B-ALL.

GSK3α Regulates Temporally Dynamic Changes in Ribosomal Proteins upon Amino Acid Starvation in Cancer Cells

Amino acid availability is crucial for cancer cells' survivability. Leukemia and colorectal cancer cells have been shown to resist asparagine depletion by utilizing GSK3-dependent proteasomal degradation, termed the Wnt-dependent stabilization of proteins (Wnt/STOP), to replenish their amino acid pool. The inhibition of GSK3α halts the sourcing of amino acids, which subsequently leads to cancer cell vulnerability toward asparaginase therapy. However, resistance toward GSK3α-mediated protein breakdown can occur, whose underlying mechanism is poorly understood. Here, we set out to define the mechanisms driving dependence toward this degradation machinery upon asparagine starvation in cancer cells. We show the independence of known stress response pathways including the integrated stress response mediated with GCN2. Additionally, we demonstrate the independence of changes in cell cycle progression and expression levels of the asparagine-synthesizing enzyme ASNS. Instead, RNA sequencing revealed that GSK3α inhibition and asparagine starvation leads to the temporally dynamic downregulation of distinct ribosomal proteins, which have been shown to display anti-proliferative functions. Using a CRISPR/Cas9 viability screen, we demonstrate that the downregulation of these specific ribosomal proteins can rescue cell death upon GSK3α inhibition and asparagine starvation. Thus, our findings suggest the vital role of the previously unrecognized regulation of ribosomal proteins in bridging GSK3α activity and tolerance of asparagine starvation.

Cathepsin B Is Not an Intrinsic Factor Related to Asparaginase Resistance of the Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia REH Cell Line

L-Asparaginase (ASNase) is a biopharmaceutical used as an essential drug in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Yet, some cases of ALL are naturally resistant to ASNase treatment, which results in poor prognosis. The REH ALL cell line, used as a model for studying the most common subtype of ALL, is considered resistant to treatment with ASNase. Cathepsin B (CTSB) is one of the proteases involved in the regulation of in vivo ASNase serum half-life and it has also been associated with the progression and resistance to treatment of several solid tumors. Previous works have shown that, in vitro, ASNase is degraded when incubated with REH cell lysate, which is prevented by a specific CTSB inhibitor, suggesting a function of this protease in the ASNase resistance of REH cells. In this work, we utilized a combination of CRISPR/Cas9 gene targeting and enzymatic measurements to investigate the relevance of CTSB on ASNase treatment resistance in the ALL model cell line. We found that deletion of CTSB in REH ALL cells did not confer ASNase treatment sensitivity, thus suggesting that intrinsic expression of CTSB is not a mechanism that drives the resistant nature of these ALL cells to enzymes used as the first-line treatment against leukemia.

Predictive markers for efficiency of the amino-acid deprivation therapies in cancer

Amino acid deprivation therapy (AADT) is a promising strategy for developing novel anticancer treatments, based on variations in metabolism of healthy and malignant cells. L-asparaginase was the first amino acid-degrading enzyme that received FDA approval for the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Arginase and arginine deiminase were effective in clinical trials for the treatment of metastatic melanomas and hepatocellular carcinomas. Essential dependence of certain cancer cells on methionine explains the anticancer efficacy of methionine-g-lyase. Along with significant progress in identification of metabolic vulnerabilities of cancer cells, new amino acid-cleaving enzymes appear as promising agents for cancer treatment: lysine oxidase, tyrosine phenol-lyase, cysteinase, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase. However, sensitivity of specific cancer cell types to these enzymes differs. Hence, search for prognostic and predictive markers for AADT and introduction of the markers into clinical practice are of great importance for translational medicine. As specific metabolic pathways in cancer cells are determined by the enzyme expression, some of these enzymes may define the sensitivity to AADT. This review considers the known predictors for efficiency of AADT, emphasizing the importance of knowledge on cancer-specific amino acid significance for such predictions.

Supramolecular assembly of GSK3α as a cellular response to amino acid starvation

The tolerance of amino acid starvation is fundamental to robust cellular fitness. Asparagine depletion is lethal to some cancer cells, a vulnerability that can be exploited clinically. We report that resistance to asparagine starvation is uniquely dependent on an N-terminal low-complexity domain of GSK3α, which its paralog GSK3β lacks. In response to depletion of specific amino acids, including asparagine, leucine, and valine, this domain mediates supramolecular assembly of GSK3α with ubiquitin-proteasome system components in spatially sequestered cytoplasmic bodies. This effect is independent of mTORC1 or GCN2. In normal cells, GSK3α promotes survival during essential amino acid starvation. In human leukemia, GSK3α body formation predicts asparaginase resistance, and sensitivity to asparaginase combined with a GSK3α inhibitor. We propose that GSK3α body formation provides a cellular mechanism to maximize the catalytic efficiency of proteasomal protein degradation in response to amino acid starvation, an adaptive response co-opted by cancer cells for asparaginase resistance.

[Mechanisms of development of side effects and drug resistance to asparaginase and ways to overcome them]

Asparaginase is one of the most important chemotherapeutic agents against acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the most common form of blood cancer. To date, both asparaginases from E. coli and Dickeya dadantii (formerly known as Erwinia chrysanthemi), used in hematology, induce chemoresistance in cancer cells and side effects in the form of hypersensitivity of immune reactions. Leukemic cells may be resistant to asparaginase due to the increased activity of asparagine synthetase and other mechanisms associated with resistance to asparaginase. Therefore, the search for new sources of L-asparaginases with improved pharmacological properties remains a promising and prospective study. This article discusses the mechanisms of development of resistance and drug resistance to L-asparaginase, as well as possible ways to overcome them.

PTEN/PI3K/Akt pathway alters sensitivity of T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia to L-asparaginase

Childhood T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) still remains a therapeutic challenge due to relapses which are resistant to further treatment. l-asparaginase (ASNase) is a key therapy component in pediatric T-ALL and lower sensitivity of leukemia cells to this drug negatively influences overall treatment efficacy and outcome. PTEN protein deletion and/or activation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway leading to altered cell growth and metabolism are emerging as a common feature in T-ALL. We herein investigated the relationship amongst PTEN deletion, ASNase sensitivity and glucose metabolism in T-ALL cells. First, we found significant differences in the sensitivity to ASNase amongst T-ALL cell lines. While cell lines more sensitive to ASNase were PTEN wild type (WT) and had no detectable level of phosphorylated Akt (P-Akt), cell lines less sensitive to ASNase were PTEN-null with high P-Akt levels. Pharmacological inhibition of Akt in the PTEN-null cells rendered them more sensitive to ASNase and lowered their glycolytic function which then resembled PTEN WT cells. In primary T-ALL cells, although P-Akt level was not dependent exclusively on PTEN expression, their sensitivity to ASNase could also be increased by pharmacological inhibition of Akt. In summary, we highlight a promising therapeutic option for T-ALL patients with aberrant PTEN/PI3K/Akt signaling.

ALL blasts drive primary mesenchymal stromal cells to increase asparagine availability during asparaginase treatment

Mechanisms underlying the resistance of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) blasts to l-asparaginase are still incompletely known. Here we demonstrate that human primary bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) successfully adapt to l-asparaginase and markedly protect leukemic blasts from the enzyme-dependent cytotoxicity through an amino acid trade-off. ALL blasts synthesize and secrete glutamine, thus increasing extracellular glutamine availability for stromal cells. In turn, MSCs use glutamine, either synthesized through glutamine synthetase (GS) or imported, to produce asparagine, which is then extruded to sustain asparagine-auxotroph leukemic cells. GS inhibition prevents mesenchymal cells adaptation to l-asparaginase, lowers glutamine secretion by ALL blasts, and markedly hinders the protection exerted by MSCs on leukemic cells. The pro-survival amino acid exchange is hindered by the inhibition or silencing of the asparagine efflux transporter SNAT5, which is induced in mesenchymal cells by ALL blasts. Consistently, primary MSCs from ALL patients express higher levels of SNAT5 (P < .05), secrete more asparagine (P < .05), and protect leukemic blasts (P < .05) better than MSCs isolated from healthy donors. In conclusion, ALL blasts arrange a pro-leukemic amino acid trade-off with bone marrow mesenchymal cells, which depends on GS and SNAT5 and promotes leukemic cell survival during l-asparaginase treatment.

Insights on Metabolic Reprogramming and Its Therapeutic Potential in Acute Leukemia

Acute leukemias, classified as acute myeloid leukemia and acute lymphoblastic leukemia, represent the most prevalent hematologic tumors in adolescent and young adults. In recent years, new challenges have emerged in order to improve the clinical effectiveness of therapies already in use and reduce their side effects. In particular, in this scenario, metabolic reprogramming plays a key role in tumorigenesis and prognosis, and it contributes to the treatment outcome of acute leukemia. This review summarizes the latest findings regarding the most relevant metabolic pathways contributing to the continuous growth, redox homeostasis, and drug resistance of leukemia cells. We describe the main metabolic deregulations in acute leukemia and evidence vulnerabilities that could be exploited for targeted therapy.

LncRNA BCYRN1-induced autophagy enhances asparaginase resistance in extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma

Background: Asparaginase (ASP) is the cornerstone drug in the treatment of extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma (ENKTCL), and the mechanisms of resistance to ASP remain largely unknown. Long non-coding RNAs play important roles in chemotherapy resistance in various cancers. However, the expression of BCYRN1 and its role in ENKTCL still remain unidentified.

Methods: Lentivirus-mediated BCYRN1 overexpression and knockdown were performed in SNK-6 cells. Cell autophagy was analyzed by adenovirus expressing GFP-LC3B fusion protein. RNA pull-down and RNA Binding Protein Immunoprecipitation Assay were performed to investigate the relationship between BCYRN1 and p53. Western blot analysis was performed to assess the effect of BCYRN1 on different autophagy pathways. Finally, in vivo xenograft tumor model was constructed to analyze the effect of BCYRN1 on tumor growth and ASP resistance.

Results: BCYRN1 was overexpressed in ENKTCL than normal NK cells, and patients with higher expression had significantly inferior progression-free survival (PFS). The IC50 value of ASP was significantly increased in BCYRN1-overexpressed SNK-6 cells and BCYRN1 overexpression could resist the inhibitory effect of ASP on proliferation. ASP could induce concurrent apoptosis and autophagy in ENKTCL, and the latter process was enhanced by overexpression of BCYRN1, mainly through affecting both PI3K/AKT/mTOR and p53/mTOR pathways. BCYRN1 could induce the degradation of p53 via ubiquitination, thus resulting in enhancement of autophagy and ASP resistance, which could be reversed by drug-induced autophagy inhibition. The effect of BCYRN1 on tumor growth and autophagy were confirmed in vivo xenograft model.

Conclusions: It was found that BCYRN1 was a valuable prognostic biomarker in ENKTCL. BCYRN1 could promote resistance to ASP by inducing autophagy, which could be reversed by inhibition of autophagy. Our findings highlight the feasibility of combining autophagy inhibition and ASP in the treatment of ENKTCL.

Dietary thiamine influences l-asparaginase sensitivity in a subset of leukemia cells

Tumor environment influences anticancer therapy response but which extracellular nutrients affect drug sensitivity is largely unknown. Using functional genomics, we determine modifiers of l-asparaginase (ASNase) response and identify thiamine pyrophosphate kinase 1 as a metabolic dependency under ASNase treatment. While thiamine is generally not limiting for cell proliferation, a DNA-barcode competition assay identifies leukemia cell lines that grow suboptimally under low thiamine and are characterized by low expression of solute carrier family 19 member 2 (SLC19A2), a thiamine transporter. SLC19A2 is necessary for optimal growth and ASNase resistance, when standard medium thiamine is lowered ~100-fold to human plasma concentrations. In addition, humanizing blood thiamine content of mice through diet sensitizes SLC19A2-low leukemia cells to ASNase in vivo. Together, our work reveals that thiamine utilization is a determinant of ASNase response for some cancer cells and that oversupplying vitamins may affect therapeutic response in leukemia.

Influence of lysosomal protease sensitivity in the immunogenicity of the antitumor biopharmaceutical asparaginase

L-asparaginase (ASNase) from Escherichia coli (EcAII) is used in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). EcAII activity in vivo has been described to be influenced by the human lysosomal proteases asparaginyl endopeptidase (AEP) and cathepsin B (CTSB); these hydrolases cleave and could expose epitopes associated with the immune response against EcAII. In this work, we show that ASNase resistance to CTSB and/or AEP influences the formation of anti-ASNase antibodies, one of the main causes of hypersensitivity reactions in patients. Error-prone polymerase chain reaction was used to produce variants of EcAII more resistant to proteolytic cleavage by AEP and CTSB. The variants with enzymatic activity and cytotoxicity levels equivalent to or better than EcAII WT were submitted to in vivo assays. Only one of the mutants presented increased serum half-life, so resistance to these proteases is not the only feature involved in EcAII stability in vivo. Our results showed alteration of the phenotypic profile of B cells isolated after animal treatment with different protease-resistant proteoforms. Furthermore, mice that were exposed to the protease-resistant proteoforms presented lower anti-asparaginase antibodies production in vivo. Our data suggest that modulating resistance to lysosomal proteases can result in less immunogenic protein drugs.

The role of asparagine synthetase on nutrient metabolism in pancreatic disease

The pancreas avidly takes up and synthesizes the amino acid asparagine (Asn), in part, to maintain an active translational machinery that requires incorporation of the amino acid. The de novo synthesis of Asn in the pancreas occurs through the enzyme asparagine synthetase (ASNS). The pancreas has the highest expression of ASNS of any organ, and it can further upregulate ASNS expression in the setting of amino acid depletion. ASNS expression is driven by an intricate feedback network within the integrated stress response (ISR), which includes the amino acid response (AAR) and the unfolded protein response (UPR). Asparaginase is a cancer chemotherapeutic drug that depletes plasma Asn. However, asparaginase-associated pancreatitis (AAP) is a major medical problem and could be related to pancreatic Asn depletion. In this review, we will provide an overview of ASNS and then describe its role in pancreatic health and in the exocrine disorders of pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer. We will offer the overarching perspective that a high abundance of ASNS expression is hardwired in the exocrine pancreas to buffer the high demands of Asn for pancreatic digestive enzyme protein synthesis, that perturbations in the ability to express or upregulate ASNS could tip the balance towards pancreatitis, and that pancreatic cancers exploit ASNS to gain a metabolic survival advantage.

Insights on the Interplay between Cells Metabolism and Signaling: A Therapeutic Perspective in Pediatric Acute Leukemias

Nowadays, thanks to extensive studies and progress in precision medicine, pediatric leukemia has reached an extremely high overall survival rate. Nonetheless, a fraction of relapses and refractory cases is still present, which are frequently correlated with poor prognosis. Although several molecular features of these diseases are known, still the field of energy metabolism, which is widely studied in adult, has not been frequently explored in childhood leukemias. Metabolic reprogramming is a hallmark of cancer and is deeply connected with other genetic and signaling aberrations generally known to be key features of both acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). This review aims to clear the current knowledge on metabolic rewiring in pediatric ALL and AML, also highlighting the influence of the main signaling pathways and suggesting potential ideas to further exploit this field to discover new prognostic biomarkers and, above all, beneficial therapeutic options.

Metabolic profile of leukemia cells influences treatment efficacy of L-asparaginase

BACKGROUND

Effectiveness of L-asparaginase administration in acute lymphoblastic leukemia treatment is mirrored in the overall outcome of patients. Generally, leukemia patients differ in their sensitivity to L-asparaginase; however, the mechanism underlying their inter-individual differences is still not fully understood. We have previously shown that L-asparaginase rewires the biosynthetic and bioenergetic pathways of leukemia cells to activate both anti-leukemic and pro-survival processes. Herein, we investigated the relationship between the metabolic profile of leukemia cells and their sensitivity to currently used cytostatic drugs.

METHODS

Altogether, 19 leukemia cell lines, primary leukemia cells from 26 patients and 2 healthy controls were used. Glycolytic function and mitochondrial respiration were measured using Seahorse Bioanalyzer. Sensitivity to cytostatics was measured using MTS assay and/or absolute count and flow cytometry. Mitochondrial membrane potential was determined as TMRE fluorescence.

RESULTS

Using cell lines and primary patient samples we characterized the basal metabolic state of cells derived from different leukemia subtypes and assessed their sensitivity to cytostatic drugs. We found that leukemia cells cluster into distinct groups according to their metabolic profile. Lymphoid leukemia cell lines and patients sensitive to L-asparaginase clustered into the low glycolytic cluster. While lymphoid leukemia cells with lower sensitivity to L-asparaginase together with resistant normal mononuclear blood cells gathered into the high glycolytic cluster. Furthermore, we observed a correlation of specific metabolic parameters with the sensitivity to L-asparaginase. Greater ATP-linked respiration and lower basal mitochondrial membrane potential in cells significantly correlated with higher sensitivity to L-asparaginase. No such correlation was found in the other cytostatic drugs tested by us.

CONCLUSIONS

These data support that cell metabolism plays a prominent role in the treatment effect of L-asparaginase. Based on these findings, leukemia patients with lower sensitivity to L-asparaginase with no specific genetic characterization could be identified by their metabolic profile.

Gene expression of ASNS, LGMN and CTSB is elevated in a subgroup of childhood BCP-ALL with PAX5 deletion

Resistance to L-asparaginase (L-asp) is a major contributor to poor treatment outcomes of several subtypes of childhood B cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP-ALL). Asparagine synthetase (ASNS), legumain (LGMN) and cathepsin B (CTSB) serve a key role in L-asp resistance. The association between genetic subtypes of BCP-ALL and the expression of ASNS, LGMN and CTSB may elucidate the mechanisms of treatment failure. Bone marrow samples of 52 children newly diagnosed with BCP-ALL were screened for major genetic abnormalities and ASNS, LGMN and CTSB gene expression levels. The cohort was further divided into groups corresponding to the key genetic aberrations occurring in BCP-ALL: Breakpoint cluster region and Abelson murine leukemia viral oncogene homolog 1 fusion; hyperdiploidy, hypodiploidy, ETS variant 6 and runt-related transcription factor 1 fusion and other BCP-ALL with no primary genetic aberration identified. A subgroup analysis based on the differences in copy number variations demonstrated a significant increase of ASNS, LGMN and CTSB median expression in other BCP-ALL cases with paired box 5 (PAX5) deletion (P=0.0117; P=0.0036; P<0.0001, respectively) compared with those with wild-type PAX5. Patients with high ASNS expression exhibited longer relapse-free survival (RFS) compared with those with low ASNS levels (P=0.0315; HR, 0.19; 95% CI, 0.04-0.86); the 5-year RFS for patients in the high ASNS expression group was 90.15% (95% CI, 87.90-92.40%). Despite the impact on ASNS, LGMN and CTSB expression, PAX5 deletion did not influence RFS in the other BCP-ALL group (P=0.6839). Therefore, the results of the present study revealed high levels of ASNS, LGMN and CTSB expression in the other BCP-ALL group with concomitant PAX5 deletion and no subsequent deterioration in 5-year RFS. High ASNS expression level, as a single factor, was strongly associated with an improved outcome.

Synthetic Lethality of Wnt Pathway Activation and Asparaginase in Drug-Resistant Acute Leukemias

Resistance to asparaginase, an antileukemic enzyme that depletes asparagine, is a common clinical problem. Using a genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 screen, we found a synthetic lethal interaction between Wnt pathway activation and asparaginase in acute leukemias resistant to this enzyme. Wnt pathway activation induced asparaginase sensitivity in distinct treatment-resistant subtypes of acute leukemia, but not in normal hematopoietic progenitors. Sensitization to asparaginase was mediated by Wnt-dependent stabilization of proteins (Wnt/STOP), which inhibits glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3)-dependent protein ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation, a catabolic source of asparagine. Inhibiting the alpha isoform of GSK3 phenocopied this effect, and pharmacologic GSK3α inhibition profoundly sensitized drug-resistant leukemias to asparaginase. Our findings provide a molecular rationale for activation of Wnt/STOP signaling to improve the therapeutic index of asparaginase.

Novel site-specific PEGylated L-asparaginase

L-asparaginase (ASNase) from Escherichia coli is currently used in some countries in its PEGylated form (ONCASPAR, pegaspargase) to treat acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). PEGylation refers to the covalent attachment of poly(ethylene) glycol to the protein drug and it not only reduces the immune system activation but also decreases degradation by plasmatic proteases. However, pegaspargase is randomly PEGylated and, consequently, with a high degree of polydispersity in its final formulation. In this work we developed a site-specific N-terminus PEGylation protocol for ASNase. The monoPEG-ASNase was purified by anionic followed by size exclusion chromatography to a final purity of 99%. The highest yield of monoPEG-ASNase of 42% was obtained by the protein reaction with methoxy polyethylene glycol-carboxymethyl N-hydroxysuccinimidyl ester (10kDa) in 100 mM PBS at pH 7.5 and PEG:ASNase ratio of 25:1. The monoPEG-ASNase was found to maintain enzymatic stability for more days than ASNase, also was resistant to the plasma proteases like asparaginyl endopeptidase and cathepsin B. Additionally, monoPEG-ASNase was found to be potent against leukemic cell lines (MOLT-4 and REH) in vitro like polyPEG-ASNase. monoPEG-ASNase demonstrates its potential as a novel option for ALL treatment, being an inventive novelty that maintains the benefits of the current enzyme and solves challenges.

Epigenetic Silencing Affects l-Asparaginase Sensitivity and Predicts Outcome in T-ALL

PURPOSE

Biological explanation for discrepancies in patient-related response to chemotherapy depending on the underlying oncogenic events is a promising research area. TLX1- or TLX3-deregulated T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemias (T-ALL; TLX1/3⁺) share an immature cortical phenotype and similar transcriptional signatures. However, their prognostic impacts differ, and inconsistent clinical outcome has been reported for TLX3. We therefore hypothesized that the overlapping transcriptional profiles of TLX1⁺ and TLX3⁺ T-ALLs would allow identification of candidate genes, which might determine their distinct clinical outcomes.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We compared TLX1⁺ and TLX3⁺ adult T-ALL outcome in the successive French national LALA-94 and GRAALL-2003/2005 multicentric trials and analyzed transcriptomic data to identify differentially expressed genes. Epigenetic regulation of asparagine synthetase (ASNS) and in vitro l-asparaginase sensitivity were evaluated for T-ALL cell lines and primary samples.

RESULTS

We show that TLX1⁺ patients expressed low levels of ASNS when compared with TLX3⁺ and TLX-negative patients, due to epigenetic silencing of ASNS by both DNA methylation and a decrease of active histone marks. Promoter methylation of the ASNS gene correlated with l-asparaginase sensitivity in both T-ALL cell lines and patient-derived xenografts. Finally, ASNS promoter methylation was an independent prognostic factor for both event-free survival [HR, 0.42; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.24-0.71; P = 0.001] and overall survival (HR, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.23-0.70; P = 0.02) in 160 GRAALL-2003/2005 T-ALL patients and also in an independent series of 47 LL03-treated T lymphoblastic lymphomas (P = 0.012).

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that ASNS methylation status at diagnosis may allow individual adaptation of l-asparaginase dose.

Asparagine synthetase expression is associated with the sensitivity to asparaginase in extranodal natural killer/T-cell lymphoma in vivo and in vitro

Background

Although asparagine synthetase (AsnS) is associated with drug resistance in leukemia, its function in extranodal natural killer (NK)/T-cell lymphoma (ENKTL) remains unclear.

Methods

The present study investigated the relationship between baseline AsnS mRNA levels and response to asparaginase in ENKTL cell lines. It also determined whether upregulating or downregulating the AsnS mRNA level induces or reverses asparaginase-resistant phenotype.

Results

Interestingly, considerable differences were observed in the sensitivity to asparaginase of the five ENKTL cell lines. The AsnS expression levels were positively correlated with the IC₅₀ values. In addition, the asparaginase resistance was induced or reversed by upregulating or downregulating the AsnS mRNA level in vivo and in vitro. Functional analyses indicated that AsnS did not affect the proliferation and apoptosis of ENKTL cells in the absence of asparaginase.

Conclusion

Together, the data stress the importance of AsnS in the sensitivity to asparaginase in ENKTL and suggest a different therapeutic strategy for patients with a different level of AsnS expression.

A Novel l-Asparaginase with low l-Glutaminase Coactivity Is Highly Efficacious against Both T- and B-cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemias In Vivo

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most common type of pediatric cancer, although about 4 of every 10 cases occur in adults. The enzyme drug l-asparaginase serves as a cornerstone of ALL therapy and exploits the asparagine dependency of ALL cells. In addition to hydrolyzing the amino acid l-asparagine, all FDA-approved l-asparaginases also have significant l-glutaminase coactivity. Since several reports suggest that l-glutamine depletion correlates with many of the side effects of these drugs, enzyme variants with reduced l-glutaminase coactivity might be clinically beneficial if their antileukemic activity would be preserved. Here we show that novel low l-glutaminase variants developed on the backbone of the FDA-approved Erwinia chrysanthemi l-asparaginase were highly efficacious against both T- and B-cell ALL, while displaying reduced acute toxicity features. These results support the development of a new generation of safer l-asparaginases without l-glutaminase activity for the treatment of human ALL.Significance: A new l-asparaginase-based therapy is less toxic compared with FDA-approved high l-glutaminase enzymes Cancer Res; 78(6); 1549-60. ©2018 AACR.

Autophagy is required for cell survival under L-asparaginase-induced metabolic stress in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells

L-asparaginase has been used for more than three decades in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) patients and remains an essential drug in the treatment of ALL. Poor response to L-asparaginase is associated with increased risk of therapeutic failure in ALL. However, both the metabolic perturbation and molecular context of L-asparaginase-treated ALL cells has not been fully elucidated. Here we identify that treatment with L-asparaginase results in metabolic shutdown via the reduction of both glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, accompanied by mitochondrial damage and activation of autophagy. The autophagy is involved in reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) level by eliminating injured mitochondria. Inhibition of autophagy enhances L-asparaginase-induced cytotoxicity and overcomes the acquired resistance to L-asparaginase in ALL cells. The ROS-p53-positive feedback loop is an essential mechanism of this synergistic cytotoxicity. Thus, our findings provide the rationale for the future development of combined treatment of L-asparaginase and anti-autophagy drug in ALL patients.

Recombinant L-asparaginase 1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae: an allosteric enzyme with antineoplastic activity

L-asparaginase (L-ASNase) (EC 3.5.1.1) is an important enzyme for the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Currently, the enzyme is obtained from bacteria, Escherichia coli and Erwinia chrysanthemi. The bacterial enzymes family is subdivided in type I and type II; nevertheless, only type II have been employed in therapeutic proceedings. However, bacterial enzymes are susceptible to induce immune responses, leading to a high incidence of adverse effects compromising the effectiveness of the treatment. Therefore, alternative sources of L-ASNase may be useful to reduce toxicity and enhance efficacy. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has the ASP1 gene responsible for encoding L-asparaginase 1 (ScASNase1), an enzyme predicted as type II, like bacterial therapeutic isoforms, but it has been poorly studied. Here we characterised ScASNase1 using a recombinant enzyme purified by affinity chromatography. ScASNase1 has specific activity of 196.2 U/mg and allosteric behaviour, like type I enzymes, but with a low K_0.5 = 75 μM like therapeutic type II. We showed through site-directed mutagenesis that the T64-Y78-T141-K215 residues are involved in catalysis. Furthermore, ScASNase1 showed cytotoxicity for the MOLT-4 leukemic cell lineage. Our data show that ScASNase1 has characteristics described for the two subfamilies of l-asparaginase, types I and II, and may have promising antineoplastic properties.

Knockdown of asparagine synthetase by RNAi suppresses cell growth in human melanoma cells and epidermoid carcinoma cells

Melanoma, the most aggressive form of skin cancer, causes more than 40,000 deaths each year worldwide. And epidermoid carcinoma is another major form of skin cancer, which could be studied together with melanoma in several aspects. Asparagine synthetase (ASNS) gene encodes an enzyme that catalyzes the glutamine- and ATP-dependent conversion of aspartic acid to asparagine, and its expression is associated with the chemotherapy resistance and prognosis in several human cancers. The present study aims to explore the potential role of ASNS in melanoma cells A375 and human epidermoid carcinoma cell line A431. We applied a lentivirus-mediated RNA interference (RNAi) system to study its function in cell growth of both cells. The results revealed that inhibition of ASNS expression by RNAi significantly suppressed the growth of melanoma cells and epidermoid carcinoma cells, and induced a G0/G1 cell cycle arrest in melanoma cells. Knockdown of ASNS in A375 cells remarkably downregulated the expression levels of CDK4, CDK6, and Cyclin D1, and upregulated the expression of p21. Therefore, our study provides evidence that ASNS may represent a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of melanoma.

Glutaminase activity determines cytotoxicity of L-asparaginases on most leukemia cell lines

L-Asparaginase (ASNase) is a front-line chemotherapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), which acts by deaminating asparagine and glutamine. To evaluate the importance of glutaminase activity, we exploited a recently developed mutant of Helicobacter pylori ASNase (dm HpA), with amino acid substitutions M121C/T169M. The mutant form has the same asparaginase activity as wild-type but lacks glutaminase activity. Wild-type and dm HpA were compared with the clinically used ASNases from Escherichia coli (l-ASP) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (ERWase). Asparaginase activity was similar for all isoforms, while glutaminase activity followed the rank order: ERWase>l-ASP>wild-type HpA>dm HpA. Cytotoxic efficacy of ASNases was tested on 11 human leukemia cell lines and two patient-derived ALL samples. Two cell lines which we had previously shown to be asparagine-dependent were equally sensitive to the asparaginase isoforms. The other nine lines and the two patient-derived samples were more sensitive to isoforms with higher glutaminase activities. ERWase was overall the most effective ASNase on all cell lines tested whereas dm HpA, having the lowest glutaminase activity, was the least effective. These data demonstrate that asparaginase activity alone may not be sufficient for ASNase cytotoxicity, and that glutaminase activity may be required for full anti-leukemic efficacy.

Differential mechanisms of asparaginase resistance in B-type acute lymphoblastic leukemia and malignant natural killer cell lines

Bacterial L-asparaginase (ASNase), hydrolyzing L-asparagine (Asn), is an important drug for treating patients with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) and natural killer (NK) cell lymphoma. Although different native or pegylated ASNase-based chemotherapy are efficient, disease relapse is frequently observed, especially in adult patients. The neo-synthesis of Asn by asparagine synthetase (AsnS) following ASNase treatment, which involves the amino acid response and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathways, is believed to be the basis of ASNase-resistance mechanisms. However, AsnS expression has not emerged as an accurate predictive factor for ASNase susceptibility. The aim of this study was to identify possible ASNase sensitivity/resistance-related genes or pathways using a new asparaginase, namely a pegylated r-crisantaspase, with a focus on classic Asn-compensatory responses and cell death under conditions of Asn/L-glutamine limitation. We show that, for B-ALL cell lines, changes in the expression of apoptosis-regulatory genes (especially NFκB-related genes) are associated with ASNase susceptibility. The response of malignant NK cell lines to ASNase may depend on Asn-compensatory mechanisms and other cellular processes such as cleavage of BCL2A1, a prosurvival member of the Bcl-2 protein family. These results suggest that according to cellular context, factors other than AsnS can influence ASNase susceptibility.

Transcriptomic profiling suggests a role for IGFBP5 in premature senescence of endothelial cells after chronic low dose rate irradiation

PURPOSE

Ionizing radiation has been recognized to increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). However, there is no consensus concerning the dose-risk relationship for low radiation doses and a mechanistic understanding of low dose effects is needed.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Previously, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were exposed to chronic low dose rate radiation (1.4 and 4.1 mGy/h) during one, three and six weeks which resulted in premature senescence in cells exposed to 4.1 mGy/h. To gain more insight into the underlying signaling pathways, we analyzed gene expression changes in these cells using microarray technology. The obtained data were analyzed in a dual approach, combining single gene expression analysis and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis.

RESULTS

An early stress response was observed after one week of exposure to 4.1 mGy/h which was replaced by a more inflammation-related expression profile after three weeks and onwards. This early stress response may trigger the radiation-induced premature senescence previously observed in HUVEC irradiated with 4.1 mGy/h. A dedicated analysis pointed to the involvement of insulin-like growth factor binding protein 5 (IGFBP5) signaling in radiation-induced premature senescence.

CONCLUSION

Our findings motivate further research on the shape of the dose-response and the dose rate effect for radiation-induced vascular senescence.

Discovery of why acute lymphoblastic leukaemia cells are killed by asparaginase: Adventures of a young post-doctoral student, Bertha K Madras

A surprising finding was made by JG Kidd (1909-1991) that guinea pig serum could make tumours disappear in mice. A later finding made by JD Broome (1939-) showed that asparaginase could suppress or kill tumour cells. However, the major mystery was why were only tumour cells but not normal cells affected by the asparaginase? The biology underlying this mechanism was unravelled by a young post-doctoral student, Bertha K Madras (1942-) who hypothesized that cells with low asparagine synthetase are those that die following treatment with asparaginase. To test her theory, Madras developed an assay for asparagine synthetase. The hypothesis was supported by the results that cells with normal asparagine synthetase were protected, while cells with low levels of this enzyme were killed by asparaginase. The findings provide a clinical guide for the use of asparaginase in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children and adults.