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Neurotrophic Factors as Regenerative Therapy for Neurodegenerative Diseases: Current Status, Challenges and Future Perspectives. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043866. [PMID: 36835277 PMCID: PMC9968045 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), multiple sclerosis (MS), spinal cord injury (SCI), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), are characterized by acute or chronic progressive loss of one or several neuronal subtypes. However, despite their increasing prevalence, little progress has been made in successfully treating these diseases. Research has recently focused on neurotrophic factors (NTFs) as potential regenerative therapy for neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we discuss the current state of knowledge, challenges, and future perspectives of NTFs with a direct regenerative effect in chronic inflammatory and degenerative disorders. Various systems for delivery of NTFs, such as stem and immune cells, viral vectors, and biomaterials, have been applied to deliver exogenous NTFs to the central nervous system, with promising results. The challenges that currently need to be overcome include the amount of NTFs delivered, the invasiveness of the delivery route, the blood-brain barrier permeability, and the occurrence of side effects. Nevertheless, it is important to continue research and develop standards for clinical applications. In addition to the use of single NTFs, the complexity of chronic inflammatory and degenerative diseases may require combination therapies targeting multiple pathways or other possibilities using smaller molecules, such as NTF mimetics, for effective treatment.
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Kim A, Lalonde K, Truesdell A, Gomes Welter P, Brocardo PS, Rosenstock TR, Gil-Mohapel J. New Avenues for the Treatment of Huntington's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168363. [PMID: 34445070 PMCID: PMC8394361 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington’s disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG expansion in the HD gene. The disease is characterized by neurodegeneration, particularly in the striatum and cortex. The first symptoms usually appear in mid-life and include cognitive deficits and motor disturbances that progress over time. Despite being a genetic disorder with a known cause, several mechanisms are thought to contribute to neurodegeneration in HD, and numerous pre-clinical and clinical studies have been conducted and are currently underway to test the efficacy of therapeutic approaches targeting some of these mechanisms with varying degrees of success. Although current clinical trials may lead to the identification or refinement of treatments that are likely to improve the quality of life of those living with HD, major efforts continue to be invested at the pre-clinical level, with numerous studies testing novel approaches that show promise as disease-modifying strategies. This review offers a detailed overview of the currently approved treatment options for HD and the clinical trials for this neurodegenerative disorder that are underway and concludes by discussing potential disease-modifying treatments that have shown promise in pre-clinical studies, including increasing neurotropic support, modulating autophagy, epigenetic and genetic manipulations, and the use of nanocarriers and stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Kim
- Island Medical Program and Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada; (A.K.); (K.L.)
| | - Kathryn Lalonde
- Island Medical Program and Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada; (A.K.); (K.L.)
| | - Aaron Truesdell
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada;
- Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Priscilla Gomes Welter
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis 88040-900, Brazil; (P.G.W.); (P.S.B.)
| | - Patricia S. Brocardo
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis 88040-900, Brazil; (P.G.W.); (P.S.B.)
| | - Tatiana R. Rosenstock
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Science, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK;
- Department of Pharmacology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Joana Gil-Mohapel
- Island Medical Program and Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada; (A.K.); (K.L.)
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-250-472-4597; Fax: +1-250-472-5505
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Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is characterized by a significant loss of striatal neurons that project to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra, together with loss of cortical projection neurons in varying regions. Mutant huntingtin is suggested to drive the pathogenesis partially by downregulating corticostriatal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels and signaling. Neurotrophic factors are endogenous peptides that promote the survival and maintenance of neurons. BDNF and other neurotrophic factors have shown neuroprotective benefits in various animal models of neurodegeneration, and are interesting candidates to protect the cell populations that are destined to die in HD. In an attempt to enhance the delivery of neurotrophic factors, several methods have been established to deliver long-term neurotrophic factor gene therapy to human target tissues. This chapter discusses two alternative approaches that have been shown to have potential to deliver neurotrophic factors as a neuroprotective gene therapy for HD. The methods are (1) ex vivo approach where encapsulated cells engineered to express neurotrophic factor are inserted into brain parenchyma or ventricle, and (2) in vivo viral vector therapy, in which viral vector is injected into desired brain area to express gene of interest in the host cells.
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Cheng S, Tereshchenko J, Zimmer V, Vachey G, Pythoud C, Rey M, Liefhebber J, Raina A, Streit F, Mazur A, Bähr M, Konstantinova P, Déglon N, Kügler S. Therapeutic efficacy of regulable GDNF expression for Huntington's and Parkinson's disease by a high-induction, background-free “GeneSwitch” vector. Exp Neurol 2018; 309:79-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2018.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Kreilaus F, Spiro AS, Hannan AJ, Garner B, Jenner AM. Therapeutic Effects of Anthocyanins and Environmental Enrichment in R6/1 Huntington's Disease Mice. J Huntingtons Dis 2017; 5:285-296. [PMID: 27567888 DOI: 10.3233/jhd-160204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease with no effective treatment or cure. Environmental enrichment has been used to slow processes leading to ageing and neurodegenerative diseases including HD. Phenolic phytochemicals including anthocyanins have also been shown to improve brain function in ageing and neurodegenerative diseases. OBJECTIVE This study examined the effects of anthocyanin dietary supplementation and environmental enrichment on behavioural phenotypes and brain cholesterol metabolic alterations in the R6/1 mouse model of HD. METHODS R6/1 HD mice and their wild-type littermate controls were randomised into the different experimental conditions, involving either environmentally enriched versus standard housing conditions, or anthocyanin versus control diet. Motor dysfunction was assessed from 6 to 26 weeks using the RotaRod and the hind-paw clasping tests. Gas chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry was used to quantify a broad range of sterols in the striatum and cortex of R6/1 HD mice. RESULTS Anthocyanin dietary supplementation delayed the onset of motor dysfunction in female HD mice. Environmental enrichment improved motor function and the hind paw clasping phenotype in male HD mice only. These mice also had lower levels of cholesterol oxidation products in the cortex compared to standard-housed mice. CONCLUSION Both anthocyanin supplementation and environmental enrichment are able to improve the motor dysfunction phenotype of R6/1 mice, however the effectiveness of these interventions was different between the two sexes. The interventions examined did not alter brain cholesterol metabolic deficits that have been reported previously in this mouse model of HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Kreilaus
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Adena S Spiro
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Anthony J Hannan
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Brett Garner
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Andrew M Jenner
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia
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Tyler CM, Federoff HJ. CNS Gene Therapy and a Nexus of Complexity: Systems and Biology at a Crossroads. Cell Transplant 2017; 15:267-73. [PMID: 16719061 DOI: 10.3727/000000006783982007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene therapy is a potentially promising new treatment for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), which has been difficult to treat with conventional therapeutics. Viral vector-mediated somatic gene therapy is a rapidly developing methodology for providing never before achieved capability to deliver specific genes to the CNS in a highly localized and controlled manner. With the advent and refinements of this technology one focus is directed to which genes are the most appropriate to select for specific disease indications. Nerve growth factor (NGF), a potent survival factor for critical cell populations that degenerate in AD, has been chosen already for clinical gene therapy trials in human AD patients. Much knowledge about the pathophysiological underpinnings of AD is still lacking to make clear which patients may benefit from a gene therapy approach. Moreover, a detailed understanding of sustained NGF action in the normal and diseased CNS needs to be resolved before conclusions can be drawn regarding the utility of NGF gene therapy. Systematic efforts to acquire this new knowledge should compel clinically and biologically sophisticated efforts to advance gene therapy for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn M Tyler
- Center for Aging and Developmental Biology, Aab Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Neurology, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester NY 14642, USA
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Kirik D, Cederfjäll E, Halliday G, Petersén Å. Gene therapy for Parkinson's disease: Disease modification by GDNF family of ligands. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 97:179-188. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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Glorioso JC, Cohen JB, Carlisle DL, Munoz-Sanjuan I, Friedlander RM. Moving toward a gene therapy for Huntington's disease. Gene Ther 2016; 22:931-3. [PMID: 26633828 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2015.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J C Glorioso
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, The University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - J B Cohen
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, The University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - D L Carlisle
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - I Munoz-Sanjuan
- CHDI Foundation/CHDI Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA. E-mail:
| | - R M Friedlander
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Dunbar GL, Sandstrom MI, Rossignol J, Lescaudron L. Neurotrophic Enhancers as Therapy for Behavioral Deficits in Rodent Models of Huntington's Disease: Use of Gangliosides, Substituted Pyrimidines, and Mesenchymal Stem Cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 5:63-79. [PMID: 16801683 DOI: 10.1177/1534582306289367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The interest in using neurotrophic factors as potential treatments for neurodegenerative disorders, such as Huntington's disease, has grown in the past decade. A major impediment for the clinical utility of neurotrophic factors is their inability to cross the blood-brain barrier in therapeutically significant amounts. Although several novel mechanisms for delivering exogenous neurotrophins to the brain have been developed, most of them involve invasive procedures or present significant risks. One approach to circumventing these problems is using therapeutic agents that can be administered systemically and have the ability to enhance the activity of neurotrophic factors. This review highlights the use of gangliosides, substituted pyrimidines, and mesenchymal stem cells as neurotrophic enhancers that have significant therapeutic potential while avoiding the pitfalls of delivering exogenous neurotrophic factors through the blood-brain barrier. The review focuses on the potential of these neurotrophic enhancers for treating the behavioral deficits in rodent models of Huntington's disease.
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Sarantos MR, Papanikolaou T, Ellerby LM, Hughes RE. Pizotifen Activates ERK and Provides Neuroprotection in vitro and in vivo in Models of Huntington's Disease. J Huntingtons Dis 2016; 1:195-210. [PMID: 23393546 DOI: 10.3233/jhd-120033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Huntington's disease (HD) is a dominantly inherited neurodegenerative condition characterized by dysfunction in striatal and cortical neurons. There are currently no approved drugs known to slow the progression of HD. OBJECTIVE To facilitate the development of therapies for HD, we identified approved drugs that can ameliorate mutant huntingtin-induced toxicity in experimental models of HD. METHODS A chemical screen was performed in a mouse Hdh(Q111/Q111) striatal cell model of HD. This screen identified a set of structurally related approved drugs (pizotifen, cyproheptadine, and loxapine) that rescued cell death in this model. Pizotifen was subsequently evaluated in the R6/2 HD mouse model. RESULTS We found that in striatal Hdh(Q111/Q111) cells, pizotifen treatment caused transient ERK activation and inhibition of ERK activation prevented rescue of cell death in this model. In the R6/2 HD mouse model, treatment with pizotifen activated ERK in the striatum, reduced neurodegeneration and significantly enhanced motor performance. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that pizotifen and related approved drugs may provide a basis for developing disease modifying therapeutic interventions for HD.
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Yoo YM, Lee CJ, Kim YJ. Exogenous GDNF increases the migration of the neural stem cells with no protection against kainic acid-induced excitotoxic cell death in rats. Brain Res 2012; 1486:27-38. [PMID: 22985671 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2012] [Revised: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Glia cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a potent survival factor for several neuron types. In this study, we have evaluated the utility of adenovirus-based vectors (Ad) and hippocampal neural stem cells (NSCs) as genetic tools for the delivery of a therapeutic protein, GDNF, in hippocampus tissues damaged by kainic acid (KA)-induced excitotoxicity. The experimental animals were treated with KA 3 days prior to exposure to Ad-GDNF, NSCs, and NSCs infected with Ad-GDNF (Ad-GDNF-NSCs). Seven days after the treatments with Ad-GDNF, NSCs and Ad-GDNF-NSCs, the effects of the treatments were evaluated. GAD-67 labeled cells originating from the transplanted NSCs were observed at increased levels in the Ad-GDNF-NSCs-treated rats as compared to the NSCs-only rats. In situ apoptosis assays showed that the levels of TUNEL-positive cells were slightly, but not significantly, reduced in the Ad-GDNF and Ad-GDNF-NSCs groups, as compared to the saline and NSCs only groups. GDNF expression by NSCs and Ad-GDNF was upregulated as the consequence of adenoviral gene delivery in the NSCs and Ad-GDNF-treated rats, and the transplanted NSCs were shown to have migrated to the hippocampal regions in Ad-GDNF-NSCs rats to a greater degree than in the NSCs-only rats. Furthermore, in the region in which the NSCs were detected, GDNF and GAD-67 expression were increased. These results indicate that the migration and differentiation of NSCs may be associated with the expression of GDNF. However, cell death consequent to KA administration was not prevented by upregulated GDNF and NSCs transplantation. Collectively, our results indicate that GDNF may exert effects on the migration and differentiation of NSCs, but there are no protective properties with regard to excitotoxically damaged hippocampal tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Mi Yoo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Gachon Medical College, Gil Medical Center, Incheon, South Korea
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Switonski PM, Szlachcic WJ, Gabka A, Krzyzosiak WJ, Figiel M. Mouse models of polyglutamine diseases in therapeutic approaches: review and data table. Part II. Mol Neurobiol 2012; 46:430-66. [PMID: 22944909 PMCID: PMC3461214 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-012-8316-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2012] [Accepted: 07/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mouse models of human diseases are created both to understand the pathogenesis of the disorders and to find successful therapies for them. This work is the second part in a series of reviews of mouse models of polyglutamine (polyQ) hereditary disorders and focuses on in vivo experimental therapeutic approaches. Like part I of the polyQ mouse model review, this work is supplemented with a table that contains data from experimental studies of therapeutic approaches in polyQ mouse models. The aim of this review was to characterize the benefits and outcomes of various therapeutic strategies in mouse models. We examine whether the therapeutic strategies are specific to a single disease or are applicable to more than one polyQ disorder in mouse models. In addition, we discuss the suitability of mouse models in therapeutic approaches. Although the majority of therapeutic studies were performed in mouse models of Huntington disease, similar strategies were also used in other disease models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawel M Switonski
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Noskowskiego 12/14, 61-704 Poznan, Poland
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Edalatmanesh MA, Bahrami AR, Hosseini E, Hosseini M, Khatamsaz S. Neuroprotective effects of mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in animal model of cerebellar degeneration. Neurol Res 2012; 33:913-20. [PMID: 22080991 DOI: 10.1179/1743132811y.0000000036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cerebellum has been considered a key structure for the processes involved in sensorimotor integration ultimately leading to motor planning and execution of coordinated movement. Thus, motor deficits and behavioral changes can be associated with cerebellar degeneration. METHODS Here, the chemical neurotoxin pyridine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid (quinolinic acid, QA) used to create partially cerebellar degeneration in adult Wistar rats suitable for use in stem cell transplantation studies. Stereotaxicaly administration of QA (0.2 mmol) in the right cerebellar hemisphere (folia VI) caused noticeable motor disturbance in all treated animals. Forty-eights hours after causing lesion, rat bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were transplanted into damaged cerebellar hemisphere. We investigated the role of MSC transplantation in forms of motor and non-motor learning that involves the cerebellum and its neuroprotective effects in Purkinje cells loss. RESULTS CM-Dil labeling showed that the transplanted MSCs survived and migrated in the cerebellum 6 weeks after transplantation. The MSC-transplanted group showed markedly improved functional performance on the rotating rod test (P≤0.0001) and beam walking test (P≤0.0001) during 6 weeks compared with the controls. For non-motor learning, we used passive avoidance learning test in 3 weeks after transplantation. The results showed that MSC transplantation prevented the development of memory deficit caused by cerebellar degeneration (P≤0.001). Stereological analysis in 6 weeks after transplantation showed that QA significantly decreases Purkinje cells in vehicle-treated rats and MSC transplantation is neuroprotective and decreases Purkinje cell loss in MSC-treated rats (P≤0.0001). CONCLUSION The results indicate that transplantation of MSCs can significantly reduce the behavioral and neuroanatomical abnormalities of these animals during 6 weeks after engraftment. According to results of this assay, cell therapy by means of bone marrow-derived adult stem cells promises for treatment of cerebellar diseases.
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Nucleic Acid-Based Therapy Approaches for Huntington's Disease. Neurol Res Int 2012; 2012:358370. [PMID: 22288011 PMCID: PMC3263636 DOI: 10.1155/2012/358370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 09/28/2011] [Accepted: 10/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by a dominant mutation that results in an unstable expansion of a CAG repeat in the huntingtin gene leading to a toxic gain of function in huntingtin protein which causes massive neurodegeneration mainly in the striatum and clinical symptoms associated with the disease. Since the mutation has multiple effects in the cell and the precise mechanism of the disease remains to be elucidated, gene therapy approaches have been developed that intervene in different aspects of the condition. These approaches include increasing expression of growth factors, decreasing levels of mutant huntingtin, and restoring cell metabolism and transcriptional balance. The aim of this paper is to outline the nucleic acid-based therapeutic strategies that have been tested to date.
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Ramaswamy S, Kordower JH. Gene therapy for Huntington's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2011; 48:243-54. [PMID: 22222669 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.12.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Revised: 12/01/2011] [Accepted: 12/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disease for which there is no cure. Therapies that are efficacious in animal models have to date shown benefit for humans. One potential powerful approach is gene therapy. The ideal method of administration of gene therapy has been hotly debated and viral vectors have provided one method of long-term and wide-spread delivery to the brain. Trophic factors to protect cells from degeneration and RNAi to reduce mutant huntingtin (mHtt) protein expression are 2 main classes of compounds that demonstrate benefit in animal models. This review will examine some commonly used adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors and discuss some therapies that hold promise for HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpa Ramaswamy
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
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Abstract
Huntingtin, the protein that when mutated causes Huntington disease (HD), has many known interactors and participates in diverse cellular functions. Mutant Htt (mHtt) engages in a variety of aberrant interactions that lead to pathological gain of toxic functions as well as loss of normal functions. The broad symptomatology of HD, including diminished voluntary motor control, cognitive decline, and psychiatric disturbances, reflects the multifaceted neuropathology. Although currently available therapies for HD focus on symptom management, the autosomal dominant cause and the adult onset make this disease an ideal candidate for genetic intervention. A variety of gene therapy approaches have been tested in mouse models of HD, ranging from those aimed at ameliorating downstream pathology or replacing lost neuronal populations to more upstream strategies to reduce mHtt levels. Here the authors review the results of these preclinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber L Southwell
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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Demeestere J, Vandenberghe W. Experimental surgical therapies for Huntington's disease. CNS Neurosci Ther 2010; 17:705-13. [PMID: 21199443 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00209.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder characterized by abnormal movement, cognitive decline, and psychiatric disturbance. HD is caused by a trinucleotide repeat expansion in the HTT gene and a corresponding neurotoxic polyglutamine expansion in the huntingtin protein. There is currently no therapy to modify the progressive course of the disease, and symptomatic treatment options are limited. In this review we describe a diverse set of emerging experimental therapeutic strategies for HD: deep brain stimulation; delivery of neurotrophic factors; cell transplantation; HTT gene silencing using RNA interference or antisense oligonucleotides; and delivery of intrabodies. The common feature of these experimental therapies is that they all require a neurosurgical intervention, either for implantation of an electrode or for brain delivery of molecules, viruses or cells that do not cross the blood-brain barrier upon oral or intravenous administration. We summarize available data on the rationale, safety, efficacy, and intrinsic limitations of each of these approaches, focusing mainly on studies in HD patients and genetic animal models of HD. Although each of these strategies holds significant promise, their efficacy remains to be proven in HD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelle Demeestere
- Department of Neurology, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Lentiviral Vector-Mediated Gene Transfer and RNA Silencing Technology in Neuronal Dysfunctions. Mol Biotechnol 2010; 47:169-87. [DOI: 10.1007/s12033-010-9334-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Polazzi E, Monti B. Microglia and neuroprotection: from in vitro studies to therapeutic applications. Prog Neurobiol 2010; 92:293-315. [PMID: 20609379 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2010] [Revised: 06/21/2010] [Accepted: 06/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are the main immune cells in the brain, playing a role in both physiological and pathological conditions. Microglial involvement in neurodegenerative diseases is well-established, being microglial activation and neuroinflammation common features of these neuropathologies. Microglial activation has been considered harmful for neurons, but inflammatory state is not only associated with neurotoxic consequences, but also with neuroprotective effects, such as phagocytosis of dead neurons and clearance of debris. This brought to the idea of protective autoimmunity in the brain and to devise immunomodulatory therapies, aimed to specifically increase neuroprotective aspects of microglia. During the last years, several data supported the intrinsic neuroprotective function of microglia through the release of neuroprotective molecules. These data led to change the traditional view of microglia in neurodegenerative diseases: from the idea that these cells play an detrimental role for neurons due to a gain of their inflammatory function, to the proposal of a loss of microglial neuroprotective function as a causing factor in neuropathologies. This "microglial dysfunction hypothesis" points at the importance of understanding the mechanisms of microglial-mediated neuroprotection to develop new therapies for neurodegenerative diseases. In vitro models are very important to clarify the basic mechanisms of microglial-mediated neuroprotection, mainly for the identification of potentially effective neuroprotective molecules, and to design new approaches in a gene therapy set-up. Microglia could act as both a target and a vehicle for CNS gene delivery of neuroprotective factors, endogenously produced by microglia in physiological conditions, thus strengthening the microglial neuroprotective phenotype, even in a pathological situation.
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Dreyer JL. Lentiviral vector-mediated gene transfer and RNA silencing technology in neuronal dysfunctions. Methods Mol Biol 2010; 614:3-35. [PMID: 20225033 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60761-533-0_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Lentiviral-mediated gene transfer in vivo or in cultured mammalian neurons can be used to address a wide variety of biological questions, to design animal models for specific neurodegenerative pathologies, or to test potential therapeutic approaches in a variety of brain disorders. Lentiviruses can infect nondividing cells, thereby allowing stable gene transfer in postmitotic cells such as mature neurons. An important contribution has been the use of inducible vectors: the same animal can thus be used repeatedly in the doxycycline-on or -off state, providing a powerful mean for assessing the function of a gene candidate in a disorder within a specific neuronal circuit. Furthermore, lentivirus vectors provide a unique tool to integrate siRNA expression constructs with the aim to locally knockdown expression of a specific gene, enabling to assess the function of a gene in a very specific neuronal pathway. Lentiviral vector-mediated delivery of short hairpin RNA results in persistent knockdown of gene expression in the brain. Therefore, the use of lentiviruses for stable expression of siRNA in brain is a powerful aid to probe gene functions in vivo and for gene therapy of diseases of the central nervous system. In this chapter, I review the applications of lentivirus-mediated gene transfer in the investigation of specific gene candidates involved in major brain disorders and neurodegenerative processes. Major applications have been in polyglutamine disorders, such as synucleinopathies and Parkinson's disease, or in investigating gene function in Huntington's disease, dystonia, or muscular dystrophy. Recently, lentivirus gene transfer has been an invaluable tool for evaluation of gene function in behavioral disorders such as drug addiction and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder or in learning and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Luc Dreyer
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland.
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Sturrock A, Leavitt BR. Murine models of Huntington disease. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2009. [DOI: 10.2217/fnl.09.34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Huntington disease is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder associated with inexorable progression. To date, no therapy has proved effective in modifying the disease course or improving survival. We present here an evaluation of our most valuable asset in the development of a cure – the mouse model. In particular, we will reflect on the relative strengths and weaknesses of current models in reprising Huntington disease pathology, evaluate their role in the development of novel therapeutic agents through preclinical trials and consider their future impact on Huntington disease research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Sturrock
- Department of Medical Genetics, UBC, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 2B5
| | - Blair R Leavitt
- Department of Medical Genetics, UBC, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 2B5
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Nanou A, Azzouz M. Gene therapy for neurodegenerative diseases based on lentiviral vectors. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2009; 175:187-200. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(09)17513-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Gil JM, Rego AC. The R6 lines of transgenic mice: a model for screening new therapies for Huntington's disease. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 59:410-31. [PMID: 19118572 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2008] [Revised: 12/07/2008] [Accepted: 12/09/2008] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a hereditary neurodegenerative disorder caused by an expanded CAG repeat in the HD gene that results in cortical and striatal degeneration, and mutant huntingtin aggregation. Current treatments are unsatisfactory. R6 transgenic mice replicate many features of the human condition, show early onset of symptoms and fast disease progression, being one of the most used models for therapy screening. Here we review the therapies that have been tested in these mice: environmental enrichment, inhibition of histone deacetylation and methylation, inhibition of misfolding and oligomerization, transglutaminase inhibition, rescue of metabolic impairment, amelioration of the diabetic phenotype, use of antioxidants, inhibition of excitotoxicity, caspase inhibition, transplantation, genetic manipulations, and restoration of neurogenesis. Although many of these treatments were beneficial in R6 mice, they may not be as effective in HD patients, and thus the search for a combination of therapies that will rescue the human condition continues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana M Gil
- Division of Medical Sciences, Island Medical Program, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, V8W 2Y2, Canada.
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Amin EM, Reza BA, Morteza BR, Maryam MM, Ali M, Zeinab N. Microanatomical evidences for potential of mesenchymal stem cells in amelioration of striatal degeneration. Neurol Res 2008; 30:1086-90. [PMID: 18768110 DOI: 10.1179/174313208x327955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Huntington's disease is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by loss of spiny neurons in the striatum and cortex, which usually happens in the third or fourth decades of life. In advanced form of the disease, progressive striatum atrophy happens and medium spiny neurons, which occupy more than 80% of the striatum, become atrophic. Gradually, the atrophy expands to the neocortex and other regions of the brain. To our knowledge, there is no effective therapeutic strategy for diminishing the motor disorders of Huntington's disease. In recent years, cellular transplantation has been an effective therapeutic method for neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, the potential of bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells in amelioration of striatal degeneration was assessed in animal model of Huntington's disease. After unilateral lesion in striatum was caused by quinolinic acid (QA), bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells, which were isolated and purified from 4-6 weeks old rats, were transplanted into the damaged striatum. After 9 weeks of transplantation, the volume of striatum, lateral ventricles and hemispheres were measured in control (normal) and test (QA injected + cell transplanted) groups. After volume determination, the atrophy percentage of both striatum and damaged hemisphere and volume extension of lateral ventricles were calculated. Histologic results showed significant difference in amount of striatum atrophy between sham (only QA injected) and test groups. These results confirm the potential of bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells in treatment of microanatomical defects in motor disorders of Huntington's disease. According to our results, cell therapy by means of bone marrow derived adult stem cells could be considered as a good candidate for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, especially Huntington's disease.
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Kells AP, Henry RA, Connor B. AAV-BDNF mediated attenuation of quinolinic acid-induced neuropathology and motor function impairment. Gene Ther 2008; 15:966-77. [PMID: 18323792 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2008.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Maintenance and plasticity of striatal neurons is dependent on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is depleted in the Huntington's disease striatum due to reduced expression and disrupted corticostriatal transportation. In this study we demonstrate that overexpression of BDNF in the striatum attenuates motor impairment and reduces the extent of striatal damage following quinolinic acid lesioning. Transfer of the BDNF gene to striatal neurons using serotype 1/2 adeno-associated viral vectors enhanced BDNF protein levels in the striatum, but induced weight loss and seizure activity following long-term high-level expression. Lower concentration BDNF expression supported striatal neurons against excitotoxic insult, as demonstrated by enhanced krox-24 immunopositive neuron survival, reduction of striatal atrophy and maintenance of the patch/matrix organization. Additionally, BDNF expression attenuated motor impairment in the forelimb use cylinder test, sensorimotor neglect in the corridor food selection task and reversed apomorphine-induced rotational behaviour. Direct correlations were shown for the first time between BDNF-mediated attenuation of behavioural impairment and the integrity of the globus pallidus, seemingly independent from the severity of striatal lesioning. These results demonstrate that BDNF holds considerable therapeutic potential for alleviating both neuropathological and motor function deficits in the Huntington's disease brain, and the critical role of pallidal neurons in facilitating motor performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Kells
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Neural Repair and Neurogenesis Laboratory, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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Abstract
Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) have the unique potential to support neuronal survival and to augment neuronal function in the injured and diseased nervous system. Numerous studies conducted over the last 20 years have provided evidence for the potent therapeutic potential of NTFs in animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. However, major obstacles for the therapeutic use of NTFs are the inability to deliver proteins across the blood-brain-barrier, and dose-limiting adverse effects resulting from the broad exposure of nontargeted structures to NTFs. Two recent developments have allowed NTFs' promise to be truly tested for the first time: first, recent improvements in viral vectors that allow the targeted delivery of NTFs while providing a long-lasting supply and sufficient therapeutic doses of NTFs; and second, improved animal models developed in recent years. In this review, we will discuss some of the potential therapeutic applications of NTFs in neurodegenerative diseases and the potential contribution of disturbed neurotrophic factor signaling to neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armin Blesch
- Department of Neurosciences-0626, Center for Neural Repair, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0626, USA.
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Kitagawa R, Miyachi S, Hanawa H, Takada M, Shimada T. Differential characteristics of HIV-based versus SIV-based lentiviral vector systems: Gene delivery to neurons and axonal transport of expressed gene. Neurosci Res 2007; 57:550-8. [PMID: 17275114 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2006.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2006] [Revised: 12/26/2006] [Accepted: 12/26/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The differential characteristics of lentiviral vectors based on human and simian immunodeficiency viruses (HIV and SIV) were investigated in rats and monkeys. Each vector was injected into the striatum, and the expression patterns of the marker gene green fluorescent protein (GFP) were analyzed in the basal ganglia. With respect to the capability of gene delivery to neural cells, the HIV-based vector exhibited a higher tropism to neurons than to astroglias in the striatum, and vice versa for the SIV-based vector. The preferential direction of axonal transport of striatally expressed GFP was also examined in the present study. The HIV-based vector allowed for both anterograde transport via the striatopallidal and striatonigral pathways and retrograde transport via the nigrostriatal pathway. The GFP labeling of axon terminals through anterograde transport was apparent regardless of the animal species, while that of neuronal cell bodies through retrograde transport was much more prominent in monkeys than in rats. As for the SIV-based vector, on the other hand, evidence for anterograde transport was obtained much more markedly in monkeys than in rats, and only weak or no retrograde transport occurred in either monkeys or rats. Our results indicate that HIV-based, but not SIV-based, lentiviral vectors possess the high tropism to neurons and permit retrograde transport of an expressed gene, especially in primates. The latter property might carry a potential benefit in gene therapy for Parkinson's disease, as stereotaxic injections of the vectors could be performed into the striatum, spatially larger than the substantia nigra, with greater certainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Kitagawa
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo 113-8602, Japan
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Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurological disorder caused by a genetic mutation in the IT15 gene. Progressive cell death in the striatum and cortex, and accompanying declines in cognitive, motor, and psychiatric functions, are characteristic of the disease. Animal models of HD have provided insight into disease pathology and the outcomes of therapeutic strategies. Earlier studies of HD most often used toxin-induced models to study mitochondrial impairment and excitotoxicity-induced cell death, which are both mechanisms of degeneration seen in the HD brain. These models, based on 3-nitropropionic acid and quinolinic acid, respectively, are still often used in HD studies. The discovery in 1993 of the huntingtin mutation led to the creation of newer models that incorporate a similar genetic defect. These models, which include transgenic and knock-in rodents, are more representative of the HD progression and pathology. An even more recent model that uses a viral vector to encode the gene mutation in specific areas of the brain may be useful in nonhuman primates, as it is difficult to produce genetic models in these species. This article examines the aforementioned models and describes their use in HD research, including aspects of the creation, delivery, pathology, and tested therapies for each model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpa Ramaswamy
- Department of Neuroscience, Rush University Medical Center, 1735 W. Harrison Street, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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Kanazawa I. Therapeutic Strategies in Huntington's Disease. J Clin Neurol 2006; 2:213-24. [PMID: 20396523 PMCID: PMC2854970 DOI: 10.3988/jcn.2006.2.4.213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2006] [Accepted: 08/29/2006] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the therapeutic strategies, from ordinary classical drugs to the modern molecular strategy at experimental level, for Huntington's disease. The disease is characterized by choreic movements, psychiatric disorders, striatal atrophy with selective small neuronal loss, and autosomal dominant inheritance. The genetic abnormality is CAG expansion in huntingtin gene. Mutant huntingtin with abnormally long glutamine stretch aggregates and forms intranuclear inclusions. In this review, I summarize the results of previous trials from the following aspects; 1. symptomatic/palliative therapies including drugs, stereotaxic surgery and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, 2. anti-degenerative therapies including anti-excitotoxicity, reversal of mitochondrial dysfunction and anti-apoptosis, 3. restorative/reparative therapies including neural trophic factors and tissue or stem cell transplantation, and 4. molecular targets in specific and radical therapies including inhibition of truncation of huntingtin, inhibition of aggregate formation, normalization of transcriptional dysregulation, enhancement of autophagic clearance of mutant huntingtin, and specific inhibition of huntingtin expression by sRNAi. Although the strategies mentioned in the latter two categories are mostly at laboratory level at present, we are pleased that one can discuss such "therapeutic strategies", a matter absolutely impossible before the causal gene of Huntington's disease was identified more than 10 years ago. It is also true, however, that some of the "therapeutic strategies" mentioned here would be found difficult to implement and abandoned in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ichiro Kanazawa
- National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
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Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease causing progressive movement disorders, cognitive dysfunction, and behavioral changes. Since the causative mutation of an expanded polyglutamine repeat in the huntingtin gene was identified, significant progress has been achieved in elucidating pathogenic mechanisms. This review summarizes recent developments in evaluating the role of abnormal protein aggregation, transcriptional dysregulation, mitochondrial and bioenergetic dysfunction, excitotoxicity, and abnormal cellular trafficking in the pathogenesis of HD. In addition, although therapeutic options in HD have been limited, progress in developing targeted therapies continues, and these advancements and future directions are reviewed.
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McBride JL, Ramaswamy S, Gasmi M, Bartus RT, Herzog CD, Brandon EP, Zhou L, Pitzer MR, Berry-Kravis EM, Kordower JH. Viral delivery of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor improves behavior and protects striatal neurons in a mouse model of Huntington's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:9345-50. [PMID: 16751280 PMCID: PMC1482612 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0508875103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a fatal, genetic, neurological disorder resulting from a trinucleotide repeat expansion in the gene that encodes for the protein huntingtin. These excessive repeats confer a toxic gain of function on huntingtin, which leads to the degeneration of striatal and cortical neurons and a devastating motor, cognitive, and psychological disorder. Trophic factor administration has emerged as a compelling potential therapy for a variety of neurodegenerative disorders, including HD. We previously demonstrated that viral delivery of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) provides structural and functional neuroprotection in a rat neurotoxin model of HD. In this report we demonstrate that viral delivery of GDNF into the striatum of presymptomatic mice ameliorates behavioral deficits on the accelerating rotorod and hind limb clasping tests in transgenic HD mice. Behavioral neuroprotection was associated with anatomical preservation of the number and size of striatal neurons from cell death and cell atrophy. Additionally, GDNF-treated mice had a lower percentage of neurons containing mutant huntingtin-stained inclusion bodies, a hallmark of HD pathology. These data further support the concept that viral vector delivery of GDNF may be a viable treatment for patients suffering from HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodi L. McBride
- *Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, 1735 West Harrison Street, Suite 300, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Shilpa Ramaswamy
- *Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, 1735 West Harrison Street, Suite 300, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Mehdi Gasmi
- Ceregene Inc., 9381 Judicial Drive, Suite 130, San Diego, CA 92121; and
| | - Raymond T. Bartus
- Ceregene Inc., 9381 Judicial Drive, Suite 130, San Diego, CA 92121; and
| | | | - Eugene P. Brandon
- Ceregene Inc., 9381 Judicial Drive, Suite 130, San Diego, CA 92121; and
| | - Lili Zhou
- *Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, 1735 West Harrison Street, Suite 300, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Mark R. Pitzer
- Department of Psychology, Grinnell College, 1116 Eighth Avenue, Grinnell, IA 50112
| | - Elizabeth M. Berry-Kravis
- *Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, 1735 West Harrison Street, Suite 300, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Jeffrey H. Kordower
- *Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, 1735 West Harrison Street, Suite 300, Chicago, IL 60612
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Cao C, Temel Y, Blokland A, Ozen H, Steinbusch HWM, Vlamings R, Nguyen HP, von Hörsten S, Schmitz C, Visser-Vandewalle V. Progressive deterioration of reaction time performance and choreiform symptoms in a new Huntington's disease transgenic ratmodel. Behav Brain Res 2006; 170:257-61. [PMID: 16569446 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2006.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2005] [Revised: 01/25/2006] [Accepted: 02/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We tested the hypothesis that a recently developed transgenic rat model of Huntington's disease (tgHD rats) showed an age-and genotype-dependent change in psychomotor performance and in the frequency of choreiform movements similar to HD patients. Wild type and tgHD (homozygotic and heterozygotic) rats were behaviorally tested at an age of 15 and 20 months. Our results show that tgHD rats exhibit an age-, and genotype-dependent deterioration of the psychomotor performance and choreiform symptoms, closely mimicking the clinical time course changes of psychomotor symptoms of HD patients. These data provide further experimental evidence that the tgHD rat can be considered as a relevant animal model of HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyan Cao
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Division of Cellular Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Li JY, Popovic N, Brundin P. The use of the R6 transgenic mouse models of Huntington's disease in attempts to develop novel therapeutic strategies. NeuroRx 2006; 2:447-64. [PMID: 16389308 PMCID: PMC1144488 DOI: 10.1602/neurorx.2.3.447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a genetic neurodegenerative disorder. Since identification of the disease-causing gene in 1993, a number of genetically modified animal models of HD have been generated. The first transgenic mouse models, R6/1 and R6/2 lines, were established 8 years ago. The R6/2 mice have been the best characterized and the most widely used model to study pathogenesis of HD and therapeutic interventions. In the present review, we especially focus on the characteristics of R6 transgenic mouse models and, in greater detail, describe the different therapeutic strategies that have been tested in these mice. We also, at the end, critically assess the relevance of the HD mouse models compared with the human disease and discuss how they can be best used in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Yi Li
- Neuronal Survival Unit, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund, Sweden.
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Di Prospero NA, Fischbeck KH. Therapeutics development for triplet repeat expansion diseases. Nat Rev Genet 2005; 6:756-65. [PMID: 16205715 DOI: 10.1038/nrg1690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The underlying genetic mutations for many inherited neurodegenerative disorders have been identified in recent years. One frequent type of mutation is trinucleotide repeat expansion. Depending on the location of the repeat expansion, the mutation might result in a loss of function of the disease gene, a toxic gain of function or both. Disease gene identification has led to the development of model systems for investigating disease mechanisms and evaluating treatments. Examination of experimental findings reveals similarities in disease mechanisms as well as possibilities for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Di Prospero
- Neurogenetics Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-3705, USA.
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Papalexi E, Persson A, Björkqvist M, Petersén A, Woodman B, Bates GP, Sundler F, Mulder H, Brundin P, Popovic N. Reduction of GnRH and infertility in the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2005; 22:1541-6. [PMID: 16190907 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04324.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Reductions in testosterone and luteinizing hormone levels and reduced sexual functions have been reported in Huntington's disease (HD) patients. Atrophy of the reproductive organs and loss of fertility have also been observed in the R6/2 mouse, which is currently the most studied transgenic model of HD. In an effort to define the cause of infertility we studied the expression of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in the medial septum, diagonal band of Broca and hypothalamus of R6/2 male mice during sexual maturation. We found a progressive reduction in the numbers of GnRH-immunoreactive neurons in the analysed brain areas of R6/2 mice starting at 5 weeks of age and becoming statistically significant with only 10% of the neurons remaining by 9 weeks of age. Atrophy of testes and seminal vesicles combined with a significant reduction in serum and testicular testosterone levels were detected in 12-week-old R6/2mice. These results suggest that infertility in the R6/2 males is due either to death of GnRH neurons or to a reduction in GnRH expression leading to a downstream impairment of the gonadotropic hormones. Gonadotropic hormone replacement did not mitigate weight loss or restore motor function in R6/2 males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Papalexi
- Neuronal Survival Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, BMC A10, 221 84 Lund, Sweden
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