Leishmanicidal activity of synthetic chalcones in Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis

Anti-Leishmania activity and molecular docking of unusual flavonoids-rich fraction from Arrabidaea brachypoda (Bignoniaceae)

Leishmaniases comprise a group of infectious parasitic diseases caused by various species of Leishmania and are considered a significant public health problem worldwide. Only a few medications, including miltefosine, amphotericin B, and meglumine antimonate, are used in current therapy. These medications are associated with severe side effects, low efficacy, high cost, and the need for hospital support. Additionally, there have been occurrences of drug resistance. Additionally, only a limited number of drugs, such as meglumine antimonate, amphotericin B, and miltefosine, are available, all of which are associated with severe side effects. In this context, the need for new effective drugs with fewer adverse effects is evident. Therefore, this study investigated the anti-Leishmania activity of a dichloromethane fraction (DCMF) extracted from Arrabidaea brachypoda roots. This fraction inhibited the viability of L. infantum, L. braziliensis, and L. Mexicana promastigotes, with IC50 values of 10.13, 11.44, and 11.16 µg/mL, respectively, and against L. infantum amastigotes (IC50 = 4.81 µg/mL). Moreover, the DCMF exhibited moderate cytotoxicity (CC50 = 25.15) towards RAW264.7 macrophages, with a selectivity index (SI) of 5.2. Notably, the DCMF caused damage to the macrophage genome only at 40 µg/mL, which is greater than the IC50 found for all Leishmania species. The results suggest that DCMF demonstrates similar antileishmanial effectiveness to isolated brachydin B, without causing genotoxic effects on mammalian cells. This finding is crucial because the isolation of the compounds relies on several steps and is very costly while obtaining the DCMF fraction is a simple and cost-effective process. Furthermore, In addition, the potential mechanisms of action of brachydins were also investigated. The computational analysis indicates that brachydin compounds bind to the Triosephosphate isomerase (TIM) enzyme via two main mechanisms: destabilizing the interface between the homodimers and interacting with catalytic residues situated at the site of binding. Based on all the results, DCMF exhibits promise as a therapeutic agent for leishmaniasis due to its significantly reduced toxicity in comparison to the adverse effects associated with current reference treatments.

Evaluating leishmanicidal effects of Lucilia sericata products in combination with Apis mellifera honey using an in vitro model

Leishmaniasis is a zoonotic disease caused by an intracellular parasite from the genus Leishmania. Lack of safe and effective drugs has increasingly promoted researches into new drugs of natural origin to cure the disease. The study, therefore, aimed to investigate the anti-leishmanial effects of Lucilia sericata larval excretion/secretion (ES) in combination with Apis mellifera honey as a synergist on Leishmania major using an in vitro model. Various concentrations of honey and larval ES fractions were tested against promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes of L. major using macrophage J774A.1 cell line. The inhibitory effects and cytotoxicity of ES plus honey were evaluated using direct counting method and MTT assay. To assess the effects of larval ES plus honey on the amastigote form, the rate of macrophage infection and the number of amastigotes per infected macrophage cell were estimated. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values were 21.66 μg/ml, 43.25 60 μg/ml, 52.58 μg/ml, and 70.38 μg/ml for crude ES plus honey, ES >10 kDa plus honey, ES <10 kDa plus honey, and honey alone, respectively. The IC50 for positive control (glucantime) was 27.03 μg/ml. There was a significant difference between viability percentages of promastigotes exposed to different doses of applied treatments compared to the negative control (p≤ 0.0001). Microscopic examination of amastigote forms revealed that dosages applied at 150 to 300 μg/ml significantly reduced the rate of macrophage infection and the number of amastigotes per infected macrophage cell. Different doses of larval products plus honey did not show a significant toxic effect agaist macrophage J774 cells. The larval ES fractions of L. sericata in combination with A. mellifera honey acted synergistically against L. major.

Chalcone Derivative Induces Flagellar Disruption and Autophagic Phenotype in Phytomonas serpens In Vitro

Phytomonas serpens is a trypanosomatid phytoparasite, found in a great variety of species, including tomato plants. It is a significant problem for agriculture, causing high economic loss. In order to reduce the vegetal infections, different strategies have been used. The biological activity of molecules obtained from natural sources has been widely investigated to treat trypanosomatids infections. Among these compounds, chalcones have been shown to have anti-parasitic and anti-inflammatory effects, being described as having a remarkable activity on trypanosomatids, especially in Leishmania species. Here, we evaluated the antiprotozoal activity of the chalcone derivative (NaF) on P. serpens promastigotes, while also assessing its mechanism of action. The results showed that treatment with the derivative NaF for 24 h promotes an important reduction in the parasite proliferation (IC50/24 h = 23.6 ± 4.6 µM). At IC50/24 h concentration, the compound induced an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and a shortening of the unique flagellum of the parasites. Electron microscopy evaluation reinforced the flagellar phenotype in treated promastigotes, and a dilated flagellar pocket was frequently observed. The treatment also promoted a prominent autophagic phenotype. An increased number of autophagosomes were detected, presenting different levels of cargo degradation, endoplasmic reticulum profiles surrounding different cellular structures, and the presence of concentric membranar structures inside the mitochondrion. Chalcone derivatives may present an opportunity to develop a treatment for the P. serpens infection, as they are easy to synthesize and are low in cost. In order to develop a new product, further studies are still necessary.

In Vivo Safety and Efficacy of Chalcone-Loaded Microparticles with Modified Polymeric Matrix against Cutaneous Leishmaniasis

Current chemotherapy of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is based on repeated systemic or intralesional administration of drugs that often cause severe toxicity. Previously, we demonstrated the therapeutic potential of biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microparticles (MPs) loaded with 8% of the nitrochalcone CH8 (CH8/PLGA) prepared by a conventional bench method. Aiming at an industrially scalable process and increased drug loading, new MPs were prepared by spray drying: CH8/PDE with PLGA matrix and CH8/PVDE with PLGA + polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) matrix, both with narrower size distribution and higher drug loading (18%) than CH8/PLGA. Animal studies were conducted to evaluate their clinical feasibility. Both MP types induced transient local swelling and inflammation, peaking at 1−2 days, following a single intralesional injection. Different from CH8/PDE that released 90% of the drug in the ear tissue in 60 days, CH8/PVDE achieved that in 30 days. The therapeutic efficacy of a single intralesional injection was evaluated in BALB/c mice infected with Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis and golden hamsters infected with L. (Viannia) braziliensis. CH8/PVDE promoted greater reduction in parasite burden than CH8/PDE or CH8/PLGA, measured at one month and two months after the treatment. Thus, addition of PVP to PLGA MP matrix accelerates drug release in vivo and increases its therapeutic effect against CL.

Antileishmanial Activity of 4,8-Dimethoxynaphthalenyl Chalcones on Leishmania amazonensis

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by Leishmania species. Available therapeutic options have several limitations. The drive to develop new, more potent, and selective antileishmanial agents is thus a major goal. Herein we report the synthesis and the biological activity evaluation against promastigote and amastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis of nine 4,8-dimethoxynaphthalenyl chalcones. Compound ((E)-1-(4,8-dimethoxynaphthalen-1-yl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)prop-2-en-1-one), 4f, was the most promising with an IC₅₀ = 3.3 ± 0.34 μM (promastigotes), a low cytotoxicity profile (CC₅₀ = 372.9 ± 0.04 μM), and a high selectivity index (SI = 112.6). Furthermore, 4f induced several morphological and ultrastructural changes in the free promastigote forms, loss of plasma membrane integrity, and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS). An in silico analysis of drug-likeness and ADME parameters suggested high oral bioavailability and intestinal absorption. Compound 4f reduced the number of infected macrophages and the number of amastigotes per macrophage, with an IC₅₀ value of 18.5 ± 1.19 μM. Molecular docking studies with targets, ARG and TR, showed that compound 4f had more hydrogen bond interactions with the ARG enzyme, indicating a more stable protein-ligand binding. These results suggest that 4,8-dimethoxynaphthalenyl chalcones are worthy of further study as potential antileishmanial drugs.

Therapeutic effects of Lucilia sericata larval excretion/secretion products on Leishmania major under in vitro and in vivo conditions

Background

Leishmaniasis is a neglected infectious disease caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania. The disease generally manifests as characteristic skin lesions which require lengthy treatment with antimonial drugs that are often associated with adverse side effects. Therefore, a number of studies have focused on natural compounds as promising drugs for its treatment. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of larval excretion/secretion products (ES) of Lucilia sericata in crude and fractionated forms on Leishmania major, by using in vitro and in vivo models.

Methods

The in vitro experiments involved evaluation of ES on both promastigotes and macrophage-engulfed amastigotes, whereas the in vivo experiments included comparative treatments of skin lesions in L. major-infected mice with Eucerin-formulated ES and Glucantime.

Results

The half maximal inhibitory concentrations of the crude ES, > 10-kDa ES fraction, < 10-kDa ES fraction, and Glucantime were 38.7 μg/ml, 47.6 μg/ml, 63.3 μg/ml, and 29.1 μg/ml, respectively. Significant differences were observed between percentage viabilities of promastigotes treated with the crude ES and its fractions compared with the negative control (P < 0.0001). The crude ES was more effective on amastigotes than the two ES fractions at 300 μg/ml. The macroscopic measurements revealed that the reduction of lesion size in mice treated with the crude ES followed quicker cascades of healing than that of mice treated with Glucantime and the ES fractions.

Conclusions

The present study showed that the larval ES of L. sericata in both crude and fractionated forms are effective for both intracellular and extracellular forms of L. major. Also, the ES exert both topical and systemic effects on mice experimentally infected with L. major.

Graphical abstract

Some Scaffolds as Anti-leishmanial Agents: An Review

Leishmaniasis is a parasitic infectious neglected tropical disease transmitted to humans by the parasites of Leishmania species. Mainly three types of leishmaniasis cases such as visceral (VL), cutaneous (CL) and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis are usually observed. In many western countries, almost 700,000 to 1million peoples are suffering from leishmaniasis and it is estimated that around 26000 to 65000 deaths occurs annually. For its treatment few drugs are available however none of them are ideal to treat leishmaniasis due to long treatment, discomfort mode of administration, risk of high level toxicity, high resistance against etc. Hence so many patients are unable to take complete treatment due to the high drug resistance. The present review will focus on antileishmanial activity of reported derivatives of betacarboline, chalcone, azole, quinoline, quinazoline, benzimidazole, benzadiazapine, thiaazoles, semicarbazone and hydontoin analogues. We believe that this present study will helpful to researcher to design new antileishmanial agents.

Screening of six medicinal plant species for antileishmanial activity

This study is aimed to investigate the in vitro anti-leishmanial activity of ethanolic, aqueous or dichloromethane extracts of leaves, flowers, fruits or roots, of six medicinal plant species, namely, Nectandra megapotamica, Brunfelsia uniflora, Myrcianthes pungens, Anona muricata, Hymenaea stigonocarpa and Piper corcovandesis. After isolation and analysis of chemical components by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS/MS), the extracts were also tested for toxicity in J774.A1 macrophages and human erythrocytes. Phenolic acids, flavonoids, acetogenins, alkaloids and lignans were identified in these extracts. Grow inhibition of promastigotes forms of Leishmania amazonensis and Leishmania braziliensis and the cytotoxicity in J774.A1 macrophages were estimated by the XTT method. The most promising results for L. amazonensis and L. braziliensis were shown by the ethanolic extract of the fruits of Hymenaea stigonocarpa and dichloromethane extract of the roots of Piper corcovadensis, with IC ₅₀ of 160 and 150 μg mL^-1, resp. Ethanolic extracts of A. muricata (leaf), B. uniflora (flower and leaf), M. pungens (fruit and leaf), N. megapotamica (leaf), and aqueous extract of H. stigonocarpa (fruit) showed IC ₅₀ > 170 μg mL^-1 for L. amazonensis and > 200 μg mL^-1 for L. braziliensis. The extracts exhibited low cytotoxicity towards J774.A1 macrophages with CC ₅₀ > 1000 μg mL^-1 and hemolytic activity from 0 to 46.1 %.

Pharmacological Properties of Chalcones: A Review of Preclinical Including Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Evidence

Chalcones are among the leading bioactive flavonoids with a therapeutic potential implicated to an array of bioactivities investigated by a series of preclinical and clinical studies. In this article, different scientific databases were searched to retrieve studies depicting the biological activities of chalcones and their derivatives. This review comprehensively describes preclinical studies on chalcones and their derivatives describing their immense significance as antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiparasitic, psychoactive, and neuroprotective agents. Besides, clinical trials revealed their use in the treatment of chronic venous insufficiency, skin conditions, and cancer. Bioavailability studies on chalcones and derivatives indicate possible hindrance and improvement in relation to its nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications. Multifaceted and complex underlying mechanisms of chalcone actions demonstrated their ability to modulate a number of cancer cell lines, to inhibit a number of pathological microorganisms and parasites, and to control a number of signaling molecules and cascades related to disease modification. Clinical studies on chalcones revealed general absence of adverse effects besides reducing the clinical signs and symptoms with decent bioavailability. Further studies are needed to elucidate their structure activity, toxicity concerns, cellular basis of mode of action, and interactions with other molecules.

The leishmanicidal effect of Lucilia sericata larval saliva and hemolymph on in vitro Leishmania tropica

Background

Leishmaniasis is a major parasitic disease worldwide, except in Australia and Antarctica, and it poses a significant public health problem. Due to the absence of safe and effective vaccines and drugs, researchers have begun an extensive search for new drugs. The aim of the current study was to investigate the in vitro leishmanicidal activity of larval saliva and hemolymph of Lucilia sericata on Leishmania tropica.

Methods

The effects of different concentrations of larval products on promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes of L. tropica were investigated using the mouse cell line J774A.1 and peritoneal macrophages as host cells. The 3-(4.5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and direct observation and counting method were used to assess the inhibitory effects and cell cytotoxicity of the larval products. The effects of larval products on the amastigote form of L. tropica were quantitatively estimated by calculating the rate of macrophage infection, number of amastigotes per infected macrophage cell, parasite load and survival index.

Results

The 50% cytotoxicity concentration (CC₅₀) value of both larval saliva and hemolymph was 750 µg/ml, and the 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values were 134 µg/ml and 60 µg/ml for larval saliva and larval hemolymph, respectively. The IC₅₀ for Glucantime, used a positive control, was (11.65 µg/ml). Statistically significant differences in viability percentages of promastigotes were observed for different doses of both larval saliva and hemolymph when compared with the negative control (p ≤ 0.0001). Microscopic evaluation of the amastigote forms revealed that treatment with 150 µg/ml larval hemolymph and 450 µg/ml larval saliva significantly decreased the rate of macrophage infection and the number of amastigotes per infected macrophage cell.

Conclusion

Larval saliva and hemolymph of L. sericata have acceptable leishmanicidal properties against L. tropica.

Graphical Abstract

4-nitrochalcone exerts leishmanicidal effect on L. amazonensis promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes, and the 4-nitrochalcone encapsulation in beeswax copaiba oil nanoparticles reduces macrophages cytotoxicity

The Leishmaniasis treatment currently available involves some difficulties, such as high toxicity, variable efficacy, high cost, therefore, it is crucial to search for new therapeutic alternatives. Over the past few years, research on new drugs has focused on the use of natural compounds such as chalcones and nanotechnology. In this context, this research aimed at assessing the in vitro leishmanicidal activity of free 4-nitrochalcone (4NC) on promastigotes and encapsulated 4NC on L. amazonensis-infected macrophages, as well as their action mechanisms. Free 4NC was able to reduce the viability of promastigotes, induce reactive oxygen species production, decrease mitochondrial membrane potential, increase plasma membrane permeability, and expose phosphatidylserine, in addition to altering the morphology and lowering parasite cellular volume. Treatment containing encapsulated 4NC in beeswax-copaiba oil nanoparticles (4NC-beeswax-CO Nps) did not alter the viability of macrophages. Furthermore, 4NC-beeswax-CO Nps reduced the percentage of infected macrophages and the number of amastigotes per macrophages, increasing the production of reactive oxygen species, NO, TNF-α, and IL-10. Therefore, free 4NC proved to exert anti-promastigote effect, while 4NC-beeswax-CO Nps showed a leishmanicidal effect on L. amazonensis-infected macrophages by activating the macrophage microbicidal machinery.

An investigation of the antileishmanial properties of semi-synthetic saponins

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by insect-vector borne protozoan parasites of the, Leishmania species. Whilst infection threatens and affects millions of the global poor, vaccines are absent and drug therapy limited. Extensive efforts have recently been made to discover new leads from small molecule synthetic compound libraries held by industry; however, the number of new chemical entities identified and entering development as anti-leishmanials has been very low. This has led to increased interest in the possibility of discovering naturally derived compounds with potent antileishmanial activity which may be developed towards clinical applications. Plant-derived triterpenoid and steroidal saponins have long been considered as anti-microbials and here we describe an investigation of a library of 137 natural (9) and semi-synthetic saponins (128) for activity against Leishmania mexicana, a causative agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis. The triterpenoid sapogenin, hederagenin, readily obtained in large quantities from Hedera helix (common ivy), was converted into a range of 128 derivatives. These semi-synthetic compounds, as well as saponins isolated from ivy, were examined with a phenotypic screening approach to identify potent and selective anti-leishmanial hits. This led to the identification of 12 compounds, including the natural saponin gypsogenin, demonstrating high potency (ED50 < 10.5 μM) against axenic L. mexicana amastigotes, the mammalian pathogenic form. One of these, hederagenin disuccinate, was sufficiently non-toxic to the macrophage host cell to facilitate further analyses, selectivity index (SI) > 10. Whilst this was not active in an infected cell model, the anti-leishmanial properties of hederagenin-derivatives have been demonstrated, and the possibility of improving the selectivity of natural hederagenin through chemical modification has been established.

Ultrastructural alterations in Plasmodium falciparum induced by chalcone derivatives

Objective

Chalcones (1, 3-diaryl-2-propen-1-ones) and their derivatives are widely explored from the past decade for its antimalarial activity. To elucidate their mechanism of action on the malaria parasite, the ultrastructural changes with the action of these derivatives in different organelles of the parasite were studied in vitro. Infected RBCs [CQ sensitive (MRC-2) and CQ resistant (RKL-9) Plasmodium strain] were treated with three chalcone derivatives 1, 2 and 3 and standard drugs, i.e., CQ and artemisinin at twice their respective IC₅₀ values for 24 h and then harvested, washed, fixed, embedded and stained to visualize ultra-structure changes before and after intervention of treatment under in vitro condition through transmission electron microscope.

Results

The ultrastructural changes demonstrate the significant disturbance of all parasite membranes, including those of the nucleus, mitochondria and food vacuole, in association with a marked reduction of ribosomes in the trophozoites and cessation of developing schizonts which suggest multiple mechanisms of action by which chalcone derivatives act on the malaria parasite. The present study opens up perspectives for further exploration of these derivatives in vivo malaria model to discover more about its effect and mechanism of action.

Single-dose treatment for cutaneous leishmaniasis with an easily synthesized chalcone entrapped in polymeric microparticles

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a major health problem in many countries and its current treatment involves multiple parenteral injections with toxic drugs and requires intensive health services. Previously, the efficacy of a single subcutaneous injection with a slow-release formulation consisting of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) microparticles loaded with an antileishmanial 3-nitro-2-hydroxy-4,6-dimethoxychalcone (CH8) was demonstrated in mice model. In the search for more easily synthesized active chalcone derivatives, and improved microparticle loading, CH8 analogues were synthesized and tested for antileishmanial activity in vitro and in vivo. The 3-nitro-2',4',6'-trimethoxychalcone (NAT22) analogue was chosen for its higher selectivity against intracellular amastigotes (selectivity index = 1489, as compared with 317 for CH8) and more efficient synthesis (89% yield, as compared with 18% for CH8). NAT22 was loaded into PLGA / polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) polymeric blend microspheres (NAT22-PLGAk) with average diameter of 1.9 μm. Although NAT22-PLGAk showed similar activity to free NAT22 in killing intracellular parasites in vitro (IC50 ~ 0.2 μm), in vivo studies in Leishmania amazonensis - infected mice demonstrated the significant superior efficacy of NAT22-PLGAk to reduce the parasite load. A single intralesional injection with NAT22-PLGAk was more effective than eight injections with free NAT22. Together, these results show that NAT22-PLGAk is a promising alternative for single-dose localized treatment of CL.

In vitro anti-malarial efficacy of chalcones: cytotoxicity profile, mechanism of action and their effect on erythrocytes

BACKGROUND

Malaria extensively leads to mortality and morbidity in endemic regions, and the emergence of drug resistant parasites is alarming. Plant derived synthetic pharmaceutical compounds are found to be a foremost research to obtain diverse range of potent leads. Amongst them, the chalcone scaffold is a functional template for drug discovery. The present study involves synthesis of ten chalcones with various substitution pattern in rings A and B and assessment of their anti-malarial efficacy against chloroquine sensitive and chloroquine resistant strains as well as of their cytotoxicity and effect on haemozoin production.

METHODS

The chalcones were synthesized by Claisen-Schmidt condensation between equimolar quantities of substituted acetophenones and aryl benzaldehydes (or indole-3-carboxaldehyde) and were screened for anti-malarial activity by WHO Mark III schizont maturation inhibition assay. The cytotoxicity profile of a HeLa cell line was evaluated through MTT viability assay and the selectivity index (SI) was calculated. Haemozoin inhibition assay was performed to illustrate mode of action on a Plasmodium falciparum strain.

RESULTS

The IC₅₀ values of all compounds were in the range 0.10-0.40 μg/mL for MRC-2 (a chloroquine sensitive strain) and 0.14-0.55 μg/mL for RKL-9 (a chloroquine resistant strain) of P. falciparum. All the chalcones showed low cellular toxicity with minimal haemolysis. The statistically significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the haemozoin production suggests a similar mechanism than that of chloroquine.

CONCLUSIONS

Out of ten chalcones, number 7 was found to be a lead compound with the highest potency (IC₅₀ = 0.11 µg/mL), as compared to licochalcone (IC₅₀ = 1.43 µg/mL) and with high selectivity index of 85.05.

Mining for natural product antileishmanials in a fungal extract library

Leishmaniasis is a Neglected Tropical Disease caused by the insect-vector borne protozoan parasite, Leishmania species. Infection affects millions of the World's poorest, however vaccines are absent and drug therapy limited. Recently, public-private partnerships have developed to identify new modes of controlling leishmaniasis. Most of these collaborative efforts have relied upon the small molecule synthetic compound libraries held by industry, but the number of New Chemical Entities (NCE) identified and entering development as antileishmanials has been very low. In light of this, here we describe a public-private effort to identify natural products with activity against Leishmania mexicana, a causative agent of cutaneous leishmanaisis (CL). Utilising Hypha Discovery's fungal extract library which is rich in small molecule (<500 molecular weight) secondary metabolites, we undertook an iterative phenotypic screening and fractionation approach to identify potent and selective antileishmanial hits. This led to the identification of a novel oxidised bisabolane sesquiterpene which demonstrated activity in an infected cell model and was shown to disrupt multiple processes using a metabolomic approach. In addition, and importantly, this study also sets a precedent for new approaches for CL drug discovery.

The effects of trans-chalcone and chalcone 4 hydrate on the growth of Babesia and Theileria

BACKGROUND

Chemotherapy is a principle tool for the control and prevention of piroplasmosis. The search for a new chemotherapy against Babesia and Theileria parasites has become increasingly urgent due to the toxic side effects of and developed resistance to the current drugs. Chalcones have attracted much attention due to their diverse biological activities. With the aim to discover new drugs and drug targets, in vitro and in vivo antibabesial activity of trans-chalcone (TC) and chalcone 4 hydrate (CH) alone and combined with diminazene aceturate (DA), clofazimine (CF) and atovaquone (AQ) were investigated.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The fluorescence-based assay was used for evaluating the inhibitory effect of TC and CH on four Babesia species, including B. bovis, B. bigemina, B. divergens, B. caballi, and T. equi, the combination with DA, CF, and AQ on in vitro cultures, and on the multiplication of a B. microti-infected mouse model. The cytotoxicity of compounds was tested on Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK), mouse embryonic fibroblast (NIH/3T3), and human foreskin fibroblast (HFF) cell lines. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of TC and CH against B. bovis, B. bigemina, B. divergens, B. caballi, and T. equi were 69.6 ± 2.3, 33.3 ± 1.2, 64.8 ± 2.5, 18.9 ± 1.7, and 14.3 ± 1.6 μM and 138.4 ± 4.4, 60.9 ± 1.1, 82.3 ± 2.3, 27.9 ± 1.2, and 19.2 ± 1.5 μM, respectively. In toxicity assays, TC and CH affected the viability of MDBK, NIH/3T3, and HFF cell lines the with half maximum effective concentration (EC50) values of 293.9 ± 2.9, 434.4 ± 2.7, and 498 ± 3.1 μM and 252.7 ± 1.7, 406.3 ± 9.7, and 466 ± 5.7 μM, respectively. In the mouse experiment, TC reduced the peak parasitemia of B. microti by 71.8% when administered intraperitoneally at 25 mg/kg. Combination therapies of TC-DA and TC-CF were more potent against B. microti infection in mice than their monotherapies.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

In conclusion, both TC and CH inhibited the growth of Babesia and Theileria in vitro, and TC inhibited the growth of B. microti in vivo. Therefore, TC and CH could be candidates for the treatment of piroplasmosis after further studies.

Leishmanicidal and antichemotactic activities of icetexanes from Salvia uliginosa Benth

BACKGROUND

Several species of Salvia are used as medicinal plants around the world. Biological activities of isolated compounds have been described, being diterpenes frequently responsible for the effects.

PURPOSE

Isolation of diterpenes from Salvia uliginosa Benth. and evaluation of the antichemotactic and leishmanicidal activities of the isolated compounds.

STUDY DESIGN

To isolate diterpenes from S. uliginosa and evaluate their antichemotactic and leishmanicidal activities in vitro.

METHODS

The exudate of S. uliginosa was obtained by rapidly dipping the aerial parts in dichloromethane. The compounds were isolated by repeated column chromatography over silica gel. The effects on L. amazonensis growth, survival, DNA degradation, ROS generation, as well as the antichemotactic activity and cytotoxicity of the compounds towards human erythrocytes and macrophages were evaluated.

RESULTS

A novel icetexane diterpene, isoicetexone (IsoICT) along with the known diterpenes icetexone (ICT), and 7-acetoxy-6,7-dihydroicetexone were isolated from the dichloromethane surface exudate of S. uliginosa. The structures were elucidated using NMR and MS experiments, and by comparison with previously reported data. IsoICT and ICT at low concentrations caused completely inhibition of neutrophils migration in vitro. In addition, IsoICT and ICT showed high leishmanicidal activity against L. amazonensis, induced ROS production in parasites and presented low cytotoxicity against macrophages and human erythrocytes, and moderate to high selectivity index.

CONCLUSION

These data indicated that IsoICT and ICT exhibit potent antichemotactic and leishmanicidal effects. Further studies are needed in order to evaluate the in vivo activities as well as the toxicity of the compounds.

Synthesis and Preliminary Antimicrobial Analysis of Isatin-Ferrocene and Isatin-Ferrocenyl Chalcone Conjugates

In this study, we outline the synthesis of isatin-ferrocenyl chalcone and 1H-1,2,3-triazole-tethered isatin-ferrocene conjugates along with their antimicrobial evaluation against the human mucosal pathogen Trichomonas vaginalis. The introduction of a triazole ring among the synthesized conjugates improved the activity profiles with most of the compounds in the library, exhibiting 100% growth inhibition in a preliminary susceptibility screen at 100 μM. IC₅₀ determination of the most potent compounds in the set revealed an inhibitory range between 2 and 13 μM. Normal flora microbiome are unaffected by these compounds, suggesting that these may be new chemical scaffolds for the discovery of new drugs against trichomonad infections.

Repurposing as a strategy for the discovery of new anti-leishmanials: the-state-of-the-art

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne neglected tropical disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania for which there is a paucity of effective viable non-toxic drugs. There are 1·3 million new cases each year causing considerable socio-economic hardship, best measured in 2·4 million disability adjusted life years, with greatest impact on the poorest communities, which means that desperately needed new antileishmanial treatments have to be both affordable and accessible. Established medicines with cheaper and faster development times may hold the cure for this neglected tropical disease. This concept of using old drugs for new diseases may not be novel but, with the ambitious target of controlling or eradicating tropical diseases by 2020, this strategy is still an important one. In this review, we will explore the current state-of-the-art of drug repurposing strategies in the search for new treatments for leishmaniasis.

Evaluating the anti-leishmania activity of Lucilia sericata and Sarconesiopsis magellanica blowfly larval excretions/secretions in an in vitro model

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne disease caused by infection by parasites from the genus Leishmania. Clinical manifestations can be visceral or cutaneous, the latter mainly being chronic ulcers. This work was aimed at evaluating Calliphoridae Lucilia sericata- and Sarconesiopsis magellanica-derived larval excretions and secretions' (ES) in vitro anti-leishmanial activity against Leishmania panamensis. Different larval-ES concentrations from both blowfly species were tested against either L. panamensis promastigotes or intracellular amastigotes using U937-macrophages as host cells. The Alamar Blue method was used for assessing parasite half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) and macrophage cytotoxicity (LC₅₀). The effect of larval-ES on L. panamensis intracellular parasite forms was evaluated by calculating the percentage of infected macrophages, parasite load and toxicity. L. sericata-derived larval-ES L. panamensis macrophage LC₅₀ was 72.57μg/mL (65.35-80.58μg/mL) and promastigote IC₅₀ was 41.44μg/mL (38.57-44.52μg/mL), compared to 34.93μg/mL (31.65-38.55μg/mL) LC₅₀ and 23.42μg/mL (22.48-24.39μg/mL) IC₅₀ for S. magellanica. Microscope evaluation of intracellular parasite forms showed that treatment with 10μg/mL L. sericata ES and 5μg/mL S. magellanica ES led to a decrease in the percentage of infected macrophages and the amount of intracellular amastigotes. This study produced in vitro evidence of the antileishmanial activity of larval ES from both blowfly species on different parasitic stages and showed that the parasite was more susceptible to the ES than it's host cells. The antileishmanial effect on L. panamensis was more evident from S. magellanica ES.

The chemotherapeutic potential of chalcones against leishmaniases: a review

Leishmaniases are endemic diseases in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world and are considered by the World Health Organization (WHO) to be among the six most important neglected tropical diseases. The current therapeutic arsenal against the disease is associated with a series of chemotherapeutic setbacks. However, since the early 1990s, naturally occurring chalcones with promising antileishmanial effects have been reported, and several other synthetic chalcones and chalcone-hybrid molecules have been confirmed to possess potent activity against various Leishmania species. This paper is a comprehensive review covering the antileishmanial activity of 34 naturally occurring chalcones, 224 synthetic/semisynthetic chalcones and 54 chalcone-hybrid molecules. Several chalcones in the synthetic/semisynthetic category had IC₅₀ values < 5 µM, with very good selectivity against parasites, and the structure-activity relationships as well as the proposed mechanism of action are discussed. We identified knowledge-gaps with the hope of providing future direction for the discovery of novel antileishmanial drugs from chalcones.

In vitro evaluation of cytotoxicity and leishmanicidal activity of phthalimido-thiazole derivatives

It is estimated that the worldwide prevalence of leishmaniasis is around 12 million individuals in 80 countries, with 400,000new cases per year. In the search for new leishmanicidal agents, the hybrid phthalimido-thiazoles have been identified as an important scaffold for drug design and discovery. The present study thus reports the in vitro activity of a series of phthalimido-thiazole derivatives. Cytotoxicity against a strain of L. infantum, Vero cells, J774 macrophages and peritoneal macrophages was evaluated, as well as nitric oxide (NO) production. Activity against amastigote and promastigote forms of L. infantum and microscopic changes in the parasite and intracellular targets of the parasite were achieved. The results show that the compounds arising from hybridization of phthalimide and 1,3-thiazole exhibit promising leishmanicidal activity. Compounds 2j and 2m were the most potent of the series tested and the parasites treated with these compounds exhibited ultrastructural changes, such as cell body shrinkage, loss of cellular membrane integrity, vacuolization of cytoplasm, membrane profiles surrounding organelles and swelling of mitochondria. The data showed that these compounds reduced the survival of intracellular amastigotes and presented low toxicity for mammalian cells. The compounds produced increased NO production compared to untreated cells in non-infected macrophages. Treated promastigote forms showed an increase in the number of cells stained with propidium iodide. The compounds brought about significant changes in mitochondrial membrane potential. According to the present study, phthalimido-thiazole compounds exhibit leishmanicidal activity and could be used to develop novel antileishmaniasis drugs and explore potential molecular targets.

Antiprotozoal Activity of Triazole Derivatives of Dehydroabietic Acid and Oleanolic Acid

Tropical parasitic diseases such as Chagas disease and leishmaniasis are considered a major public health problem affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide. As the drugs currently used to treat these diseases have several disadvantages and side effects, there is an urgent need for new drugs with better selectivity and less toxicity. Structural modifications of naturally occurring and synthetic compounds using click chemistry have enabled access to derivatives with promising antiparasitic activity. The antiprotozoal activity of the terpenes dehydroabietic acid, dehydroabietinol, oleanolic acid, and 34 synthetic derivatives were evaluated against epimastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi and promastigotes of Leishmaniabraziliensis and Leishmania infantum. The cytotoxicity of the compounds was assessed on NCTC-Clone 929 cells. The activity of the compounds was moderate and the antiparasitic effect was associated with the linker length between the diterpene and the triazole in dehydroabietinol derivatives. For the oleanolic acid derivatives, a free carboxylic acid function led to better antiparasitic activity.

Heteroaryl chalcone allied triazole conjugated organosilatranes: synthesis, spectral analysis, antimicrobial screening, photophysical and theoretical investigations

A series of heteroaryl tethered triazole conjoined organosilatranes were synthesized and studied for their solvatochromism experimentally and theoretically followed by antimicrobial screening.

Cinnamic Acid Bornyl Ester Derivatives from Valeriana wallichii Exhibit Antileishmanial In Vivo Activity in Leishmania major-Infected BALB/c Mice

Human leishmaniasis covers a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from self-healing cutaneous leishmaniasis to severe and lethal visceral leishmaniasis caused among other species by Leishmania major or Leishmania donovani, respectively. Some drug candidates are in clinical trials to substitute current therapies, which are facing emerging drug-resistance accompanied with serious side effects. Here, two cinnamic acid bornyl ester derivatives (1 and 2) were assessed for their antileishmanial activity. Good selectivity and antileishmanial activity of bornyl 3-phenylpropanoate (2) in vitro prompted the antileishmanial assessment in vivo. For this purpose, BALB/c mice were infected with Leishmania major promastigotes and treated with three doses of 50 mg/kg/day of compound 2. The treatment prevented the characteristic swelling at the site of infection and correlated with reduced parasite burden. Transmitted light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy of Leishmania major promastigotes revealed that compounds 1 and 2 induce mitochondrial swelling. Subsequent studies on Leishmania major promastigotes showed the loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm) as a putative mode of action. As the cinnamic acid bornyl ester derivatives 1 and 2 had exhibited antileishmanial activity in vitro, and compound 2 in Leishmania major-infected BALB/c mice in vivo, they can be regarded as possible lead structures for the development of new antileishmanial therapeutic approaches.

New perspectives for leishmaniasis chemotherapy over current anti-leishmanial drugs: a patent landscape

INTRODUCTION

Although leishmaniasis is estimated to cause the ninth largest disease burden among individual infectious diseases, it is still one of the most neglected diseases in terms of drug development. Current drugs are highly toxic, resistance is common and compliance of patients to treatment is low, as treatment is long and drug price is high.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, the authors carried out a patent landscape in search for new perspectives for leishmaniasis therapy. This search encompassed patent documents having priority date between 1994 and 2014. Selected compounds were compared to current anti-leishmanial drugs regarding efficacy and toxicity, when experimental data were available.

EXPERT OPINION

Most patents related to drugs for leishmaniasis have not been produced by the pharmaceutical industry but rather by public research institutes or by universities, and the majority of the inventions disclosed are still in preclinical phase. There is an urgent need to find new ways of funding research for leishmaniasis drugs, incentivizing product development partnerships and pushing forward innovation.

Leishmanicidal activities of novel synthetic furoxan and benzofuroxan derivatives

A novel series of furoxan (1,2,5-oxadiazole 2-oxide) (compounds 3, 4a and -b, 13a and -b, and 14a to -f) and benzofuroxan (benzo[c][1,2,5]oxadiazole 1-oxide) (compounds 7 and 8a to -c) derivatives were synthesized, characterized, and evaluated for in vitro activity against promastigote and intracellular amastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis. The furoxan derivatives exhibited the ability to generate nitric oxide at different levels (7.8% to 27.4%). The benzofuroxan derivative 8a was able to increase nitrite production in medium supernatant from murine macrophages infected with L. amazonensis at 0.75 mM after 48 h. Furoxan and benzofuroxan derivatives showed remarkable leishmanicidal activity against both promastigote and intracellular amastigote forms. Compounds 8a, 14a and -b, and 14d exerted selective leishmanicidal activities superior to those of amphotericin B and pentamidine. In vitro studies at pH 5.4 reveal that compound 8a is stable until 8 h and that compound 14a behaves as a prodrug, releasing the active aldehyde 13a. These compounds have emerged as promising novel drug candidates for the treatment of leishmaniasis.

Effect of structurally related flavonoids from Zuccagnia punctata Cav. on Caenorhabditis elegans

Zuccagnia punctata Cav. (Fabaceae), commonly called jarilla macho or pus-pus, is being used in traditional medicine as an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory and to relieve muscle and bone pain. The aim of this work was to study the anthelmintic effects of three structurally related flavonoids present in aerial parts of Z. punctata Cav. The biological activity of the flavonoids 7-hydroxyflavanone (HF), 3,7-dihydroxyflavone (DHF) and 2´,4´-dihydroxychalcone (DHC) was examined in the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Our results showed that among the assayed flavonoids, only DHC showed an anthelmintic effect and alteration of egg hatching and larval development processes in C. elegans. DHC was able to kill 50% of adult nematodes at a concentration of 17 μg/mL. The effect on larval development was observed after 48 h in the presence of 25 and 50 μg/mL DHC, where 33.4 and 73.4% of nematodes remained in the L3 stage or younger. New therapeutic drugs with good efficacy against drug-resistant nematodes are urgently needed. Therefore, DHC, a natural compound present in Z. punctata, is proposed as a potential anthelmintic drug.