Use of chickpea protein for encapsulation of folate to enhance nutritional potency and stability

Processing to improve the sustainability of chickpea as a functional food ingredient

Chickpea is a field crop that is playing an emerging role in the provision of healthy and sustainable plant-based value-added ingredients for the food and nutraceutical industries. This article reviews the characteristics of chickpea (composition, health properties, and techno-functionality) and chickpea grain that influence their use as whole foods or ingredients in formulated food. It covers the exploitation of traditional and emerging processes for the conversion of chickpea into value-added differentiated food ingredients. The influence of processing on the composition, health-promoting properties, and techno-functionality of chickpea is discussed. Opportunities to tailor chickpea ingredients to facilitate their incorporation in traditional food applications and in the expanding plant-based meat alternative and dairy alternative markets are highlighted. The review includes an assessment of the possible uses of by-products of chickpea processing. Recommendations are provided for future research to build a sustainable industry using chickpea as a value-added ingredient. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Therapeutic Applications and Effects of Lupinus angustifolius (Blue Lupin) and Its Components: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Lupinus angustifolius has a unique nutrient profile among legumes and may have beneficial health effects when included in the diet. The aim of this study was to investigate the biological properties of blue lupin (Lupinus angustifolius), its chemical components, and their relevance for monitoring biological and anthropometric health markers, including triglycerides (TGs), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), BMI, weight, and glycemia, compared with control groups with other kinds of diets. PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases, updated to December 2023, were searched. Out of the 194 studies identified, a total of 7 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comprising 302 participants met the eligibility criteria. The results of our study indicated that the blue lupin diet has a direct relationship with parameters such as blood glucose, weight, and LDL-C but not with TGs or BMI. In conclusion, the research described in this review clearly indicates that L. angustifolius may play an important role in the dietary prevention of hyperlipidemia and hypertension. Therefore, it would be highly advisable to increase its consumption in diets. However, further studies, ideally in humans, are required to truly establish L. angustifolius's health-promoting properties.

Polysaccharides, proteins, and their complex as microencapsulation carriers for delivery of probiotics: A review on carrier types and encapsulation techniques

Probiotics provide several benefits for humans, including restoring the balance of gut bacteria, boosting the immune system, and aiding in the management of certain conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome and lactose intolerance. However, the viability of probiotics may undergo a significant reduction during food storage and gastrointestinal transit, potentially hindering the realization of their health benefits. Microencapsulation techniques have been recognized as an effective way to improve the stability of probiotics during processing and storage and allow for their localization and slow release in intestine. Although, numerous techniques have been employed for the encapsulation of probiotics, the encapsulation techniques itself and carrier types are the main factors affecting the encapsulate effect. This work summarizes the applications of commonly used polysaccharides (alginate, starch, and chitosan), proteins (whey protein isolate, soy protein isolate, and zein) and its complex as the probiotics encapsulation materials; evaluates the evolutions in microencapsulation technologies and coating materials for probiotics, discusses their benefits and limitations, and provides directions for future research to improve targeted release of beneficial additives as well as microencapsulation techniques. This study provides a comprehensive reference for current knowledge pertaining to microencapsulation in probiotics processing and suggestions for best practices gleaned from the literature.

Natural carriers: Recent advances in their use to improve the stability and bioaccessibility of food active compounds

In the last decades, the incorporation of bioactive compounds in food supplements aroused the attention of scientists. However, these ingredients often exhibit both low solubility and stability and their poor bioaccessibility within the gastrointestinal tract limits their effectiveness. To overcome these drawbacks, many carriers have been investigated for encapsulating nutraceuticals and enhancing their bioavailability. It is note that several different vegetable wall materials have been applied to build delivery systems. Considering their encapsulation mechanism, lipid and protein-based carriers display specific interaction patterns with bioactives, whereas polysaccharidic-based carriers can entrap them by creating porous highly stable networks. To maximize the encapsulation efficiency, mixed systems are very promising. Following the current goal of using natural and sustainable ingredients, only a limited number of studies about the isolation of new ingredients from agro-food waste are available. In this review, a comprehensive overview of the state of art in the development of innovative natural lipid-, protein- and polysaccharide-based plant carriers is presented, focusing on their application as food active compounds. Different aspects to be considered in the design of delivery systems are discussed, including the carrier structure and chemical features, the interaction between the encapsulating and the core material, and the parameters affecting bioactives entrapment.

Upscaling of Apple By-Product by Utilising Apple Seed Protein as a Novel Wall Material for Encapsulation of Chlorogenic Acid as Model Bioactive Compound

Encapsulation is a versatile technique used to protect sensitive bioactive compounds under gastrointestinal conditions. In this study, nanoencapsulation of chlorogenic acid into the apple seed protein matrix was performed using the green technique ultrasonication to protect it from harsh gastric conditions and increase its biological activity and bioavailability upon digestion. Both nano (Nano-Chl) and native capsules (NT-Chl) were characterised by particle size, charge, structure, and morphology. The encapsulation efficiency, release behaviour, antioxidant and antidiabetic properties were also evaluated. The experimental results show that the particle size of the NT-Chl and Nano-Chl was found in the range of 1.4 µm to 708 nm. The encapsulation efficiency was found to be 69% and 80% for NT-Chl and Nano-Chl, respectively. Furthermore, an in vitro digestion study revealed that Nano-Chl showed controlled-release behaviour under simulated intestinal conditions in comparison to NT-Chl. Moreover, Nano-Chl showed enhanced antioxidant and antidiabetic activity in comparison to NT-Chl after simulated digestion. It was concluded that the protein from apple seeds could be utilised as a functional ingredient itself or as a wall material for the encapsulation of sensitive bioactive compounds. Furthermore, these encapsulated particles can be fortified into different food formulations for the development of functional food.

Escalate protein plates from legumes for sustainable human nutrition

Protein is one of the most important, foremost, and versatile nutrients in food. The quantity and quality of protein are determinants of its nutritional values. Therefore, adequate consumption of high-quality protein is essential for optimal growth, development, and health of humans. Based on short-term nitrogen balance studies, the Recommended Dietary Allowance of protein for the healthy adult with minimal physical activity is 0.8 g protein/kg body weight (BW) per day. Proteins are present in good quantities in not only animals but also in plants, especially in legumes. With the growing demand for protein, interest in plant proteins is also rising due to their comparative low cost as well as the increase in consumers' demand originating from health and environmental concerns. Legumes are nutrient-dense foods, comprising components identified as "antinutritional factors" that can reduce the bioavailability of macro and micronutrients. Other than nutritive value, the physiochemical and behavioral properties of proteins during processing plays a significant role in determining the end quality of food. The term "complete protein" refers to when all nine essential amino acids are present in the correct proportion in our bodies. To have a balanced diet, the right percentage of protein is required for our body. The consumption of these high protein-containing foods will lead to protein sustainability and eradicate malnutrition. Here, we shed light on major opportunities to strengthen the contribution of diversity in legume crops products to sustainable diets. This review will boost awareness and knowledge on underutilized proteinous foods into national nutritional security programs.

Properties of curcumin-loaded zein-tea saponin nanoparticles prepared by antisolvent co-precipitation and precipitation

The properties of nutraceutical-loaded biopolymer nanoparticles fabricated by antisolvent co-precipitation (ASCP) and precipitation (ASP) were compared. Curcumin-loaded zein-tea saponin nanoparticles were fabricated using both methods and then their structural and physicochemical properties were characterized. The diameter of the nanoparticles prepared by ASCP were smaller (120-130 nm) than those prepared by ASP (140-160 nm). The encapsulation efficiency of the ASCP-nanoparticles (80.0%) was higher than the ASP-ones (71.0%) at a zein-to-curcumin mass ratio of 3:1, which was also higher than previous studies. The storage and light stability of curcumin was higher in zein-saponin nanoparticles than in zein nanoparticles. All nanoparticles had good water dispersibility after freeze-drying and rehydration. This study shows that nanoparticles produced by antisolvent co-precipitation have superior properties to those produced by antisolvent precipitation. The co-precipitation method leads to a higher encapsulation efficiency, smaller particle size, and greater storage stability, which may be advantageous for some applications.

Biopolymeric Nanocarriers for Nutrient Delivery and Crop Biofortification

Driven by the possibility of precise transformational change in nutrient-enrichment technology to meet global food demand, advanced nutrient delivery strategies have emerged to pave the path toward success for nutrient enrichment in edible parts of crops through bioderived nanocarriers with increased productivity. Slow and controlled release of nutrient carrier materials influences the nutrient delivery rate in soil and in the edible parts of crops with a sluggish nutrient delivery to enhance their availability in roots by minimizing nutrient loss. With a limited understanding of the nutrient delivery mechanism in soil and the edible parts of crops, it is envisaged to introduce nutrient-enrichment technology for nutrient delivery that minimizes environmental impact due to its biodegradable nature. This article attempts to analyze the possible role of the cellulose matrix for nutrient release and the role of cellulose nanocomposites and nanofibers. We have proposed a few cellulose derived biofortificant materials as nutrient carriers, such as (1) nanofibers, (2) polymer-nanocellulose-clay composites, (3) silk-fibroin derived nanocarriers, and (4) carboxymethyl cellulose. An effort is undertaken to describe the research need by linking a biopolymer derived nanocarrier for crop growth regulation and experimental nitrogen release analysis. We have finally provided a perspective on cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) for microcage based nutrient loading ability. This article aims to explain why biopolymer derived nutrient carriers are the alternative candidate for alleviating nutrient deficiency challenges which are involved in focusing the nutrient delivery profile of biopolymers and promising biofortification of crops.

Selection and Optimization of an Innovative Polysaccharide-Based Carrier to Improve Anthocyanins Stability in Purple Corn Cob Extracts

The extraction process of alcohol-insoluble polysaccharides from exhausted Moradyn cob (Zea mays L. cv. Moradyn) (EMCP), camelina cake (Camelina sativa L. Crantz) (CCP), and common bean seeds (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) (CBP) was investigated and optimized by Response Surface Methodology. Each fraction was tested at different core/carrier ratios in the encapsulation of Moradyn cob extract (MCE), a rich source of antioxidant anthocyanins, and the obtained ingredients were screened for their encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and extraction process sustainability. The ingredients containing 50% and 75% CCP had EE% higher than 60% and 80%, respectively, and were selected for further studies. Preliminary structural analysis indicated CCP was mostly composed of neutral polysaccharides and proteins in a random-coiled conformation, which was also unchanged in the ingredients. CCP-stabilizing properties were tested, applying an innovative stress testing protocol. CCP strongly improved MCE anthocyanins solid-state stability (25 °C, 30% RH), and therefore it could be an innovative anthocyanins carrier system.

Legume Proteins and Peptides as Compounds in Nutraceuticals: A Structural Basis for Dietary Health Effects

In the current climate of food security, quality aspects of legume crops have primary market economic and health impact. Legume proteins and peptides have been discovered to have a role far beyond supplying amino acids for growth and maintenance of body tissues. Several proteins (enzymatic inhibitors, lectins, storage globulins) and peptides derived from them (lunasin, hydrophobic peptides) have shown anticarcinogenic, hypocholesterolemic, glucose-lowering, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and immunostimulant properties. Further understanding of how structural features of legume proteins affect in vivo digestion and production of bioactive sequences represents a key step in the valorization of nutraceutical potentiality of legume proteins and peptides derived from them. In this work, the relationship between structure and bioavailability of protein and peptides are reviewed and discussed.

Quantitative Estimation of Protein in Sprouts of Vigna radiate (Mung Beans), Lens culinaris (Lentils), and Cicer arietinum (Chickpeas) by Kjeldahl and Lowry Methods

Protein scarcity is the most vital cause of long-lasting diseases and even untimely deaths in some developing nations. The application of protein in food is advantageous from the point of view of non-toxicity, biocompatibility, and dietary benefits. This study aimed to determine the protein contents of the sprouts of Vigna radiates (mung beans), Lens culinaris (lentils), and Cicer arietinum (chickpeas) using the Kjeldahl and Lowry methods. The results obtained from the Kjeldahl method identified protein concentrations of 2.54, 2.63, and 2.19%, whereas the Lowry method results identified protein concentrations of 2.96%, 4.10%, and 1.6% in mung beans, lentils, and chickpeas, respectively. In both the methods, lentils were found to have the highest amount of protein followed by mung beans and chickpeas. Both the Kjeldahl and Lowry methods demonstrated good protein values and low variation in the protein amount in the analyzed samples. Furthermore, the methods had greater sensitivity and comparable experimental variability. The outcomes revealed that assays can be applied for protein analysis in legumes. In the context of a lack of suitable standard procedures for evaluating legumes’ compositions, the present study is suitable for food control laboratories. In addition, the studied samples represent a significant source of protein and can be used to fulfil the daily requirements for protein intake and other food applications.

Chickpea protein ingredients: A review of composition, functionality, and applications

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a pulse consumed all over the world, representing a good source of protein, as well as fat, fiber, and other carbohydrates. As a result of the growing global population the demand for the protein component of this pulse is increasing and various approaches have been proposed and developed to extract same. In this review the composition, functionality, and applications of chickpea protein ingredients are described. Moreover, methods to enhance protein quality have been identified, as well as applications of the coproducts resulting from protein extraction and processing. The principal dry and wet protein enrichment approaches, resulting in protein concentrates and isolates, include air classification, alkaline/acid extraction, salt extraction, isoelectric precipitation, and membrane filtration. Chickpea proteins exhibit good functional properties such as solubility, water and oil absorption capacity, emulsifying, foaming, and gelling. During protein enrichment, the functionality of protein can be enhanced in addition to primary processing (e.g., germination and dehulling, fermentation, enzymatic treatments). Different applications of chickpea protein ingredients, and their coproducts, have been identified in research, highlighting the potential of these ingredients for novel product development and improvement of the nutritional profile of existing food products. Formulations to meet consumer needs in terms of healthy and sustainable foods have been investigated in the literature and can be further explored. Future research may be useful to improve applications of the specific coproducts that result from the extraction of chickpea proteins, thereby leading to more sustainable processes.

Enhancement of Biological and Pharmacological Properties of an Encapsulated Polyphenol: Curcumin

There is a dearth of natural remedies available for the treatment of an increasing number of diseases facing mankind. Natural products may provide an opportunity to produce formulations and therapeutic solutions to address this shortage. Curcumin (CUR), diferuloylmethane; I,7-bis-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1,6-heptadiene-3,5-dione is the major pigment in turmeric powder which has been reported to exhibit a number of health benefits including, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties. In this review, the authors attempt to highlight the biological and pharmacological properties of CUR in addition to emphasizing aspects relating to the biosynthesis, encapsulation and therapeutic effects of the compound. The information contained in this review was generated by considering published information in which evidence of enhanced biological and pharmacological properties of nano-encapsulated CUR was reported. CUR has contributed to a significant improvement in melanoma, breast, lung, gastro-intestinal, and genito-urinary cancer therapy. We highlight the impact of nano-encapsulated CUR for efficient inhibition of cell proliferation, even at low concentrations compared to the free CUR when considering anti-proliferation. Furthermore nano-encapsulated CUR exhibited bioactive properties, exerted cytotoxic and anti-oxidant effects by acting on endogenous and cholinergic anti-oxidant systems. CUR was reported to block Hepatitis C virus (HCV) entry into hepatic cells, inhibit MRSA proliferation, enhance wound healing and reduce bacterial load. Nano-encapsulated CUR has also shown bioactive properties when acting on antioxidant systems (endogenous and cholinergic). Future research is necessary and must focus on investigation of encapsulated CUR nano-particles in different models of human pathology.

Utilization of chickpea protein isolate and Persian gum for microencapsulation of licorice root extract towards its incorporation into functional foods

This study aimed at the fabrication of licorice extract (LE)-loaded microparticles by complex coacervation, using chickpea protein isolate (CPI) and soluble fraction of Persian gum (SFPG). The LE-loaded microparticles with the highest encapsulation efficiency (97.87%) and loading capacity (11.35%) were obtained at pH 3 and CPI: SFPG ratio, core: coating ratio, and polymer concentration of 2, 1.5, and 2, respectively. The LE-loaded microparticles (2-15 μm) possessed heterogeneous microstructure, and the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy data confirmed the pronounced effect of electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding. The thermostability, amorphous structure, and color of the LE-loaded microparticles were significantly enhanced, compared to free LE. The sensory evaluation of the model beverages containing LE-loaded microparticles revealed that the microencapsulation was able to mask the bitter aftertaste and color of the extract. Thus, the results of this research confirm the potential of CPI-SFPG complex coacervates for the efficient delivery of glycyrrhizin via incorporation into functional food products.

Proteins from leguminous plants: from structure, property to the function in encapsulation/binding and delivery of bioactive compounds

Leguminous proteins are important nutritional components in leguminous plants, and they have different structures and functions depending on their sources. Due to their specific structures and physicochemical properties, leguminous proteins have received much attention in food and nutritional applications, and they can be applied as various carriers for binding/encapsulation and delivery of food bioactive compounds. In this review, we systematically summarize the different structures and functional properties of several leguminous proteins which can be classified as ferritin, trypsin inhibitor, β-conglycinin, glycinin, and various leguminous proteins isolates. Moreover, we review the development of leguminous proteins as carriers of food bioactive compounds, and emphasize the functions of leguminous protein-based binding/encapsulation and delivery in overcoming the low bioavailability, instability and low absorption efficiency of food bioactive compounds. The limitations and challenges of the utilization of leguminous proteins as carriers of food bioactive compounds are also discussed. Possible approaches to resolve the limitations of applying leguminous proteins such as instability of proteins and poor absorption of bioactive compounds are recommended.

Legume proteins are smart carriers to encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic bioactive compounds and probiotic bacteria: A review

Encapsulation is a promising technological process enabling the protection of bioactive compounds against harsh storage, processing, and gastrointestinal tract (GIT) conditions. Legume proteins (LPs) are unique carriers that can efficiently encapsulate these unstable and highly reactive ingredients. Stable LPs-based microcapsules loaded with active ingredients can thus develop to be embedded into processed functional foods. The recent advances in micro- and nanoencapsulation process of an extensive span of bioactive health-promoting probiotics and chemical compounds such as marine and plant fatty acid-rich oils, carotenoid pigments, vitamins, flavors, essential oils, phenolic and anthocyanin-rich extracts, iron, and phytase by LPs as single wall materials were highlighted. A technical summary of the use of single LP-based carriers in designing innovative delivery systems for natural bioactive molecules and probiotics was made. The encapsulation mechanisms, encapsulation efficiency, physicochemical and thermal stability, as well as the release and absorption behavior of bioactives were comprehensively discussed. Protein isolates and concentrates of soy and pea were the most common LPs to encapsulate nutraceuticals and probiotics. The microencapsulation of probiotics using LPs improved bacteria survivability, storage stability, and tolerance in the in vitro GIT conditions. Moreover, homogenization and high-pressure pretreatments as well as enzymatic cross-linking of LPs significantly modify their structure and functionality to better encapsulate the bioactive core materials. LPs can be attractive delivery devices for the controlled release and increased bioaccessibility of the main food-grade bioactives.

Pulse proteins: secondary structure, functionality and applications

Pulses are the second most important source of food for humans after cereals. They hold an important position in human nutrition. They are rich source of proteins, complex carbohydrates, essential vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals and are low in lipids. Pulses are also considered the most suitable for preparing protein ingredients (concentrates and isolates) because of their high protein content, wide acceptability and low cost. In addition, pulse proteins exhibit functional properties (foaming and emulsification, water and fat absorption and gelation) as well as nutraceutical/health benefiting-properties which makes them healthier and low cost alternative to conventional protein sources like soy, wheat and animals. Proteins from different pulses (beans, peas, lentils, cowpeas, chickpeas, pigeon peas, etc.) differ in their composition and structure hence for finished product suitability. Therefore, this article aimed to review composition, structure-function relationship and current applications of different pulse proteins in the food industry.

Nanostructuring Biopolymers for Improved Food Quality and Safety

Food-grade biopolymers, apart from their inherent nutritional properties, can be tailored designed for improving food quality and safety, either serving as delivery vehicles for bioactive molecules, or as novel packaging components, not only improving the transport properties of biobased packaging structures, but also imparting active antibacterial and antiviral properties. In this chapter, the potential of different food-grade biopolymers (mainly proteins and carbohydrates but also some biopolyesters) to serve as encapsulating matrices for the protection of sensitive bioactives or as nanostructured packaging layers to improve transport properties and control the growth of pathogenic bacteria and viruses are described based on some developments carried out by the authors, as well as the most prominent works found in literature in this area.

Functional properties of chickpea protein isolates dried by refractance window drying

In the present study, the effect of Refractance Window (RW) drying on the functional properties of chickpea protein isolates was investigated and compared to freeze drying at different pH levels. The functional properties investigated were protein solubility, water and oil holding capacity, emulsifying properties, foaming properties, flocculation and coalescence indices and textural properties. The solubility, oil holding capacity and foam stability of the freeze dried protein isolates were determined to be higher than the RW dried samples. On the other hand, the RW dried samples had better water holding capacity and emulsion stability compared to the freeze dried protein isolates. The emulsion activity index, flocculation and coalescence indices of the chickpea protein isolates prepared by different drying techniques showed different tendencies depending on the pH level. Freeze dried protein isolates exhibited higher gelation ability than RW dried samples according to the texture profile analysis. This study clearly showed that the drying technique used in the preparation of protein isolates can affect their functional properties.