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Haraguchi R, Hirao T, Yamada T. Occurrence and Characteristics of Serpula himantioides Fruiting Bodies on Living Trees in Japan. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:572. [PMID: 39194899 DOI: 10.3390/jof10080572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2024] [Revised: 08/10/2024] [Accepted: 08/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Serpula himantioides is a globally distributed wood decay fungus that causes heartwood decay in several tree species. We investigated the occurrence of S. himantioides fruiting bodies in Japan for two years and six months to characterize their biology. The fruiting bodies matured in autumn and occurred on living Chamaecyparis pisifera, Chamaecyparis obtusa, Larix kaempferi, and Cryptomeria japonica trees, as well as on dead trees and soil. Assessing three circular plots, the incidence of living trees with S. himantioides fruiting bodies was lowest in the plot with the most advanced heartwood decay. Furthermore, fruiting bodies occurred more frequently in the lower slope direction of the trunk. Analysis using the pair correlation function suggested that the spatial distribution pattern of living trees with fruiting bodies may change from intensive to random with heartwood decay progress. Finally, according to generalized linear and generalized linear mixed models, which were used to investigate the factors affecting the development of fruiting bodies in C. pisifera, C. obtusa, and L. kaempferi, no clear relationship was found between the presence or absence of fruiting bodies and heartwood decay. Thus, we suggest that fruiting bodies can occur in healthy living trees as well as in living trees in the early stages of heartwood decay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryusei Haraguchi
- The University of Tokyo Chichibu Forest, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-49 Hinoda-machi, Chichibu, Saitama 368-0034, Japan
| | - Toshihide Hirao
- The University of Tokyo Chichibu Forest, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-49 Hinoda-machi, Chichibu, Saitama 368-0034, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Yamada
- The University of Tokyo Forests, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1, Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Rikame TN, Ranawade PS, Mittal SPK, Barvkar VT, Borde MY, Tak RD. Characterization and Biological Studies of the Terpenoids from Ganoderma resinaceum and Serpula similis (Agaricomycetes). Int J Med Mushrooms 2023; 25:15-31. [PMID: 37947061 DOI: 10.1615/intjmedmushrooms.2023050771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Mycochemical properties and bioactivities of Ganoderma resinaceum and Serpula similis remain unexplored. The present study assessed antioxidant, cytotoxicity, and cell migration abilities of Ganoderma and Serpula extracts, followed by their phytochemical analyses. The MTT assay was conducted to determine the cytotoxicity along with the cell migration studies in human cancer cell lines. The antioxidant profiles were evaluated through DPPH and FRAP assays. Furthermore, LC-MS/MS analysis was performed to elucidate the phytochemicals responsible for anticancer and antioxidant activities. Significant concentration-dependent cytotoxicities of 12.7% and 13.7% were observed against HCT 116 cell lines at 1% and 5% concentrations of the G. resinaceum extract, respectively. Similarly, significant concentration-dependent cytotoxicities of 6.7% and 25.5% were observed at 1% and 5% concentrations of the S. similis extract, respectively. The extracts of G. resinaceum and S. similis both shows better anti-migration potential in lung cancer cells. Both extracts demonstrated good scavenging activity on DPPH and ferric ion free radicals. LC-MS analysis revealed 11 compounds from S. similis and 15 compounds from G. resinaceum fruiting bodies. Compounds such as terpenoids, alkaloids, cytotoxic peptides, and other metabolites were identified as major components in both extracts. These extracts exhibited cytotoxic activity against HCT 116 cancer cells, along with moderate antioxidant activity. This implies that the extracts might be used as bioactive natural sources in the pharmaceutical and food industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tejal N Rikame
- Department of Chemistry, Ahmednagar College, Ahmednagar 414001, MH, India
| | - Preeti S Ranawade
- Department of Biotechnology, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411007, MH, India
| | - Smriti P K Mittal
- Department of Biotechnology, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411007, MH, India
| | - Vitthal T Barvkar
- Department of Botany, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411007, MH, India
| | - Mahesh Y Borde
- Department of Botany, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411007, MH, India
| | - Rajesh D Tak
- Department of Chemistry, Ahmednagar College, Ahmednagar 414001, MH, India
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Skrede I, Murat C, Hess J, Maurice S, Sønstebø JH, Kohler A, Barry-Etienne D, Eastwood D, Högberg N, Martin F, Kauserud H. Contrasting demographic histories revealed in two invasive populations of the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans. Mol Ecol 2021; 30:2772-2789. [PMID: 33955084 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Globalization and international trade have impacted organisms around the world leading to a considerable number of species establishing in new geographic areas. Many organisms have taken advantage of human-made environments, including buildings. One such species is the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans, which is the most aggressive wood-decay fungus in indoor environments in temperate regions. Using population genomic analyses of 36 full genome sequenced isolates, we demonstrated that European and Japanese isolates are highly divergent and the populations split 3000-19,000 generations ago, probably predating human influence. Approximately 250 generations ago, the European population went through a tight bottleneck, probably corresponding to the fungus colonization of the built environment in Europe. The demographic history of these populations, probably lead to low adaptive potential. Only two loci under selection were identified using a Fst outlier approach, and selective sweep analyses identified three loci with extended haplotype homozygosity. The selective sweep analyses found signals in genes possibly related to decay of various substrates in Japan and in genes involved DNA replication and protein modification in Europe. Our results suggest that the dry rot fungus independently established in indoor environments in Europe and Japan and that invasive species can potentially establish large populations in new habitats based on a few colonizing individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inger Skrede
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Claude Murat
- INRAE, UMR Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes, Centre INRAE-GrandEst Lorraine, Université de Lorraine, Champenoux, France
| | - Jaqueline Hess
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sundy Maurice
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Annegret Kohler
- INRAE, UMR Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes, Centre INRAE-GrandEst Lorraine, Université de Lorraine, Champenoux, France
| | | | - Dan Eastwood
- Department of Biosciences, University of Swansea, Swansea, UK
| | - Nils Högberg
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Swedish Agricultural University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Francis Martin
- INRAE, UMR Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes, Centre INRAE-GrandEst Lorraine, Université de Lorraine, Champenoux, France.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Tree Breeding by Molecular Design, Institute of Microbiology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
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Hess J, Balasundaram SV, Bakkemo RI, Drula E, Henrissat B, Högberg N, Eastwood D, Skrede I. Niche differentiation and evolution of the wood decay machinery in the invasive fungus Serpula lacrymans. THE ISME JOURNAL 2021; 15:592-604. [PMID: 33077886 PMCID: PMC8027034 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-020-00799-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Ecological niche breadth and the mechanisms facilitating its evolution are fundamental to understanding adaptation to changing environments, persistence of generalist and specialist lineages and the formation of new species. Woody substrates are structurally complex resources utilized by organisms with specialized decay machinery. Wood-decaying fungi represent ideal model systems to study evolution of niche breadth, as they vary greatly in their host range and preferred decay stage of the substrate. In order to dissect the genetic basis for niche specialization in the invasive brown rot fungus Serpula lacrymans, we used phenotyping and integrative analysis of phylogenomic and transcriptomic data to compare this species to wild relatives in the Serpulaceae with a range of specialist to generalist decay strategies. Our results indicate specialist species have rewired regulatory networks active during wood decay towards decreased reliance on enzymatic machinery, and therefore nitrogen-intensive decay components. This shift was likely accompanied with adaptation to a narrow tree line habitat and switch to a pioneer decomposer strategy, both requiring rapid colonization of a nitrogen-limited substrate. Among substrate specialists with narrow niches, we also found evidence for pathways facilitating reversal to generalism, highlighting how evolution may move along different axes of niche space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaqueline Hess
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
- Department of Soil Ecology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, UFZ, Halle (Saale), Germany.
| | | | | | - Elodie Drula
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques (AFMB), CNRS, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France
- INRA, USC1408 AFMB, Marseille, France
| | - Bernard Henrissat
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques (AFMB), CNRS, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France
- INRA, USC1408 AFMB, Marseille, France
- Department of Biological Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nils Högberg
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Daniel Eastwood
- Department of Biosciences, University of Swansea, Swansea, UK
| | - Inger Skrede
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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The fungus that came in from the cold: dry rot's pre-adapted ability to invade buildings. ISME JOURNAL 2018; 12:791-801. [PMID: 29305577 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-017-0006-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Many organisms benefit from being pre-adapted to niches shaped by human activity, and have successfully invaded man-made habitats. One such species is the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans, which has a wide distribution in buildings in temperate and boreal regions, where it decomposes coniferous construction wood. Comparative genomic analyses and growth experiments using this species and its wild relatives revealed that S. lacrymans evolved a very effective brown rot decay compared to its wild relatives, enabling an extremely rapid decay in buildings under suitable conditions. Adaptations in intracellular transport machineries promoting hyphal growth, and nutrient and water transport may explain why it is has become a successful invader of timber in houses. Further, we demonstrate that S. lacrymans has poor combative ability in our experimental setup, compared to other brown rot fungi. In sheltered indoor conditions, the dry rot fungus may have limited encounters with other wood decay fungi compared to its wild relatives. Overall, our analyses indicate that the dry rot fungus is an ecological specialist with poor combative ability against other fungi.
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Zhu Y, Mahaney J, Jellison J, Cao J, Gressler J, Hoffmeister D, Goodell B. Fungal variegatic acid and extracellular polysaccharides promote the site-specific generation of reactive oxygen species. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 44:329-338. [PMID: 28032229 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-016-1889-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
This study aims to clarify the role of variegatic acid (VA) in fungal attack by Serpula lacrymans, and also the generation and scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the fungus. VA promotes a mediated Fenton reaction to generated ROS after oxalate solubilizes oxidized forms of iron. The fungal extracellular matrix (ECM) β-glucan scavenged ROS, and we propose this as a mechanism to protect the fungal hyphae while ROS generation is promoted to deconstruct the lignocellulose cell wall. A relatively high pH (4.4) also favored Fe(III) transfer from oxalate to VA as opposed to a lower pH (2.2) conditions, suggesting a pH-dependent Fe(III) transfer to VA employed by S. lacrymans. This permits ROS generation within the higher pH of the cell wall, while limiting ROS production near the fungal hyphae, while β-glucan from the fungal ECM scavenges ROS in the more acidic environments surrounding the fungal hyphae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zhu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Wooden Material Science and Application, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China.,Department of Sustainable Biomaterials, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - James Mahaney
- Edward Via Virginia College of Osteopathic Medicine, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Jody Jellison
- Center for Agriculture, Food and the Environment, 319 Stockbridge Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Jinzhen Cao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Wooden Material Science and Application, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China.
| | - Julia Gressler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Barry Goodell
- Department of Sustainable Biomaterials, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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de Mattos-Shipley K, Ford K, Alberti F, Banks A, Bailey A, Foster G. The good, the bad and the tasty: The many roles of mushrooms. Stud Mycol 2016; 85:125-157. [PMID: 28082758 PMCID: PMC5220184 DOI: 10.1016/j.simyco.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungi are often inconspicuous in nature and this means it is all too easy to overlook their importance. Often referred to as the "Forgotten Kingdom", fungi are key components of life on this planet. The phylum Basidiomycota, considered to contain the most complex and evolutionarily advanced members of this Kingdom, includes some of the most iconic fungal species such as the gilled mushrooms, puffballs and bracket fungi. Basidiomycetes inhabit a wide range of ecological niches, carrying out vital ecosystem roles, particularly in carbon cycling and as symbiotic partners with a range of other organisms. Specifically in the context of human use, the basidiomycetes are a highly valuable food source and are increasingly medicinally important. In this review, seven main categories, or 'roles', for basidiomycetes have been suggested by the authors: as model species, edible species, toxic species, medicinal basidiomycetes, symbionts, decomposers and pathogens, and two species have been chosen as representatives of each category. Although this is in no way an exhaustive discussion of the importance of basidiomycetes, this review aims to give a broad overview of the importance of these organisms, exploring the various ways they can be exploited to the benefit of human society.
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Affiliation(s)
- K.M.J. de Mattos-Shipley
- School of Biological Sciences, Life Sciences Building, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, UK
| | - K.L. Ford
- School of Biological Sciences, Life Sciences Building, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - F. Alberti
- School of Biological Sciences, Life Sciences Building, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
- School of Life Sciences and Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - A.M. Banks
- School of Biological Sciences, Life Sciences Building, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
- School of Biology, Devonshire Building, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - A.M. Bailey
- School of Biological Sciences, Life Sciences Building, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - G.D. Foster
- School of Biological Sciences, Life Sciences Building, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
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Brandenburger E, Braga D, Kombrink A, Lackner G, Gressler J, Künzler M, Hoffmeister D. Multi-genome analysis identifies functional and phylogenetic diversity of basidiomycete adenylate-forming reductases. Fungal Genet Biol 2016; 112:55-63. [PMID: 27457378 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2016.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Among the invaluable benefits of basidiomycete genomics is the dramatically enhanced insight into the potential capacity to biosynthesize natural products. This study focuses on adenylate-forming reductases, which is a group of natural product biosynthesis enzymes that resembles non-ribosomal peptide synthetases, yet serves to modify one substrate, rather than to condense two or more building blocks. Phylogenetically, these reductases fall in four classes. The phylogeny of Heterobasidion annosum (Russulales) and Serpula lacrymans (Boletales) adenylate-forming reductases was investigated. We identified a previously unrecognized phylogenetic branch within class III adenylate-forming reductases. Three representatives were heterologously produced and their substrate preferences determined in vitro: NPS9 and NPS11 of S. lacrymans preferred l-threonine and benzoic acid, respectively, while NPS10 of H. annosum accepted phenylpyruvic acid best. We also investigated two class IV adenylate-forming reductases of Coprinopsis cinerea, which each were active with l-alanine, l-valine, and l-serine as substrates. Our results show that adenylate-forming reductases are functionally more diverse than previously recognized. As none of the natural products known from the species investigated in this study includes the identified substrates of their respective reductases, our findings may help further explore the diversity of these basidiomycete secondary metabolomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen Brandenburger
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Daniel Braga
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Anja Kombrink
- ETH Zürich, Institute of Microbiology, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Gerald Lackner
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Junior Research Group Synthetic Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Adolf-Reichwein-Strasse 23, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Julia Gressler
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Markus Künzler
- ETH Zürich, Institute of Microbiology, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany.
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Stukenbrock EH. The Role of Hybridization in the Evolution and Emergence of New Fungal Plant Pathogens. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2016; 106:104-12. [PMID: 26824768 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-08-15-0184-rvw] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Hybridization in fungi has recently been recognized as a major force in the generation of new fungal plant pathogens. These include the grass pathogen Zymoseptoria pseudotritici and the powdery mildew pathogen Blumeria graminis triticale of triticale. Hybridization also plays an important role in the transfer of genetic material between species. This process is termed introgressive hybridization and involves extensive backcrossing between hybrid and the parental species. Introgressive hybridization has contributed substantially to the successful spread of plant pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and O. novo-ulmi, the causal agents of Dutch elm disease, and other tree pathogens such as the rust pathogen Melampsora. Hybridization occurs more readily between species that have previously not coexisted, so-called allopatric species. Reproductive barriers between allopatric species are likely to be more permissive allowing interspecific mating to occur. The bringing together of allopatric species of plant pathogens by global agricultural trade consequently increases the potential for hybridization between pathogen species. In light of global environmental changes, agricultural development, and the facilitated long-distance spread of fungal plant pathogens, hybridization should be considered an important mechanism whereby new pathogens may emerge. Recent studies have gained insight into the genetics and biology of fungal hybrids. Here I summarize current knowledge about hybrid speciation and introgressive hybridization. I propose that future studies will benefit greatly from the availability of large genome data sets and that genome data provide a powerful resource in combination with experimental approaches for analyses of hybrid species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva H Stukenbrock
- Environmental Genomics, Christian-Albrechts University of Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 9-11, 24118 Kiel, Germany and Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemann-Str. 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
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Chung CL, Huang SY, Huang YC, Tzean SS, Ann PJ, Tsai JN, Yang CC, Lee HH, Huang TW, Huang HY, Chang TT, Lee HL, Liou RF. The Genetic Structure of Phellinus noxius and Dissemination Pattern of Brown Root Rot Disease in Taiwan. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139445. [PMID: 26485142 PMCID: PMC4615629 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the 1990s, brown root rot caused by Phellinus noxius (Corner) Cunningham has become a major tree disease in Taiwan. This fungal pathogen can infect more than 200 hardwood and softwood tree species, causing gradual to fast decline of the trees. For effective control, we must determine how the pathogen is disseminated and how the new infection center of brown root rot is established. We performed Illumina sequencing and de novo assembly of a single basidiospore isolate Daxi42 and obtained a draft genome of ~40 Mb. By comparing the 12,217 simple sequence repeat (SSR) regions in Daxi42 with the low-coverage Illumina sequencing data for four additional P. noxius isolates, we identified 154 SSR regions with potential polymorphisms. A set of 13 polymorphic SSR markers were then developed and used to analyze 329 P. noxius isolates collected from 73 tree species from urban/agricultural areas in 14 cities/counties all around Taiwan from 1989 to 2012. The results revealed a high proportion (~98%) of distinct multilocus genotypes (MLGs) and that none of the 329 isolates were genome-wide homozygous, which supports a possible predominant outcrossing reproductive mode in P. noxius. The diverse MLGs exist as discrete patches, so brown root rot was most likely caused by multiple clones rather than a single predominant strain. The isolates collected from diseased trees near each other tend to have similar genotype(s), which indicates that P. noxius may spread to adjacent trees via root-to-root contact. Analyses based on Bayesian clustering, FST statistics, analysis of molecular variance, and isolation by distance all suggest a low degree of population differentiation and little to no barrier to gene flow throughout the P. noxius population in Taiwan. We discuss the involvement of basidiospore dispersal in disease dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Lin Chung
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
- Master Program for Plant Medicine, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Shun-Yuan Huang
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ching Huang
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Shean-Shong Tzean
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Pao-Jen Ann
- Plant Pathology Division, Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute, No. 189, Zhongzheng Rd., Wufeng Dist., Taichung City 41362, Taiwan
| | - Jyh-Nong Tsai
- Plant Pathology Division, Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute, No. 189, Zhongzheng Rd., Wufeng Dist., Taichung City 41362, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Cheng Yang
- Master Program for Plant Medicine, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Han Lee
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Wei Huang
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Yu Huang
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Tun-Tschu Chang
- Division of Forest Protection, Taiwan Forestry Research Institute, No. 53, Nanhai Rd., Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei City 10066, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Lin Lee
- Department of Crop Environment, Taitung District Agricultural Research and Extension Station, No. 675, Sec. 1, Zhonghua Rd., Taitung City 95055, Taiwan
| | - Ruey-Fen Liou
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
- Master Program for Plant Medicine, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
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