Toxicological effects of cationic nanobubbles on the liver and kidneys: biomarkers for predicting the risk

Alendronate/lactoferrin-dual decorated lipid nanocarriers for bone-homing and active targeting of ivermectin and methyl dihydrojasmonate for leukemia

Chronic myeloid leukemia is a hematological cancer, where disease relapse and drug resistance are caused by bone-hosted-residual leukemia cells. An innovative resolution is bone-homing and selective-active targeting of anticancer loaded-nanovectors. Herein, ivermectin (IVM) and methyl dihydrojasmonate (MDJ)-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (IVM-NLC) were formulated then dually decorated by lactoferrin (Lf) and alendronate (Aln) to optimize (Aln/Lf/IVM-NLC) for active-targeting and bone-homing potential, respectively. Aln/Lf/IVM-NLC (1 mg) revealed nano-size (73.67 ± 0.06 nm), low-PDI (0.43 ± 0.06), sustained-release of IVM (62.75 % at 140-h) and MDJ (78.7 % at 48-h). Aln/Lf/IVM-NLC afforded substantial antileukemic-cytotoxicity on K562-cells (4.29-fold lower IC50), higher cellular uptake and nuclear fragmentation than IVM-NLC with acceptable cytocompatibility on oral-epithelial-cells (as normal cells). Aln/Lf/IVM-NLC effectively upregulated caspase-3 and BAX (4.53 and 15.9-fold higher than IVM-NLC, respectively). Bone homing studies verified higher hydroxyapatite affinity of Aln/Lf/IVM-NLC (1 mg; 22.88 ± 0.01 % at 3-h) and higher metaphyseal-binding (1.5-fold increase) than untargeted-NLC. Moreover, Aln/Lf/IVM-NLC-1 mg secured 1.35-fold higher in vivo bone localization than untargeted-NLC, with lower off-target distribution. Ex-vivo hemocompatibility and in-vivo biocompatibility of Aln/Lf/IVM-NLC (1 mg/mL) were established, with pronounced amelioration of hepatic and renal toxicity compared to higher Aln doses. The innovative Aln/Lf/IVM-NLC could serve as a promising nanovector for bone-homing, active-targeted leukemia therapy.

Recent progresses in natural based therapeutic materials for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is a neurological disorder that causes increased memory loss, mood swings, behavioral disorders, and disruptions in daily activities. Polymer scaffolds for the brain have been grown under laboratory, physiological, and pathological circumstances because of the limitations of conventional treatments for patients with central nervous system diseases. The blood-brain barrier prevents medications from entering the brain, challenging AD treatment. Numerous biomaterials such as biomolecules, polymers, inorganic metals, and metal oxide nanoparticles have been used to transport therapeutic medicines into the nervous system. Incorporating biocompatible materials that support neurogenesis through a combination of topographical, pharmacological, and mechanical stimuli has also shown promise for the transfer of cells to replenish dopaminergic neurons. Components made of naturally occurring biodegradable polymers are appropriate for the regeneration of nerve tissue. The ability of natural-based materials (biomaterials) has been shown to promote endogenous cell development after implantation. Also, strategic functionalization of polymeric nanocarriers could be employed for treating AD. In particular, nanoparticles could resolve Aβ aggregation and thus help cure Alzheimer's disease. Drug moieties can be effectively directed to the brain by utilizing nano-based systems and diverse colloidal carriers, including hydrogels and biodegradable scaffolds. Notably, early investigations employing neural stem cells have yielded promising results, further emphasizing the potential advancements in this field. Few studies have fully leveraged the combination of cells with cutting-edge biomaterials. This study provides a comprehensive overview of prior research, highlighting the pivotal role of biomaterials as sophisticated drug carriers. It delves into various intelligent drug delivery systems, encompassing pH and thermo-triggered mechanisms, polymeric and lipid carriers, inorganic nanoparticles, and other vectors. The discussion synthesizes existing knowledge and underscores the transformative impact of these biomaterials in devising innovative strategies, augmenting current therapeutic methodologies, and shaping new paradigms in the realm of Alzheimer's disease treatment.

Nanobubble technologies: Applications in therapy from molecular to cellular level

Nanobubbles are gaseous entities suspended in bulk liquids that have widespread beneficial usage in many industries. Nanobubbles are already proving to be versatile in furthering the effectiveness of disease treatment on cellular and molecular levels. They are functionalized with biocompatible and stealth surfaces to aid in the delivery of drugs. At the same time, nanobubbles serve as imaging agents due to the echogenic properties of the gas core, which can also be utilized for controlled and targeted delivery. This review provides an overview of the biomedical applications of nanobubbles, covering their preparation and characterization methods, discussing where the research is currently focused, and how they will help shape the future of biomedicine.

Nano-lipospheres as acoustically active ultrasound contrast agents: evolving tumor imaging and therapy technique

Applying nanobubbles (NBs) for contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging has received increased attention. NBs are biocompatible, multifunctional, theranostic agents. Their properties of high echogenicity and stability create an agent suitable for ultrasonography diagnosis. Their favorable properties of size, in vivo stability, and ease of modification are being exploited to implement a theranostic platform for cancer treatment. The considerable development offers the potential to overcome drug resistance and adverse side effects that are associated with traditional chemotherapy. This review outlines the principles of ultrasonography and angiogenesis. Microbubbles and micelles are also discussed to underline the superior capabilities of NBs for the application. NBs could passively accumulate to tumor tissue by enhanced permeability and retention effect. In addition, it can also achieve the active transportation by surface modification. Active targeting modalities and stimuli-responsive drug delivery modifications generate a therapeutic vehicle. The cytotoxicity of NBs formulations, multimodal imaging capability, active targeting mechanisms, and drug delivery methods are highlighted to confirm the NB as a vehicle for targeted treatment and enhanced ultrasound imaging.

Toxicity Assessment of PEG-PCCL Nanoparticles and Preliminary Investigation on Its Anti-tumor Effect of Paclitaxel-Loading

The efficiency of single treatment of conventional chemotherapy drugs is unpleasantly reduced by the physiological barriers of tumors. In this regard, nanoparticles have become attractive for achieving such medical purpose of targeted cancer therapy by delivering anti-tumor agents to the needed area. A novel drug deliverer, poly (ethylene glycol) carboxyl-poly (ε-caprolactone) (PEG-PCCL), has been reported to be highly hydrophilic and stable, while little is known about its organic toxicity. This study focused on systemic toxicity assessments of PEG-PCCL. The pharmacokinetics of PTX-loaded PEG-PCCL (PEG-PCCL/PTX) and its anti-tumor effect were preliminarily investigated. In the present work, PEG-PCCL was characterized by laser particle size analyzer and transmission electron microscopy. The cytotoxicity was investigated by MTT test, LDH leakage assay, immunofluorescence, and transmission electron microscopy. Hemolysis, phlebitis, and organ toxicity tests were performed to demonstrate the biocompatibility and acute biotoxicity. H22 tumor-bearing mice were used to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of the micells of PEG-PCCL/PTX and its anti-tumor effect. The results showed that the size of PEG-PCCL nanospheres was 97 ± 2.6 nm. PEG-PCCL treatment showed little cytotoxicity and good biocompatibility, and did not exhibit organ toxicity. PTX-loading efficiency was 49.98%. The pharmacokinetic study on H22 tumor-bearing mice revealed that PEG-PCCL/PTX has higher stability and slower release than PTX alone. Together, these results suggest that PEG-PCCL nanosphere has little toxicity to organisms and is a potential candidate of biocompatible drug vehicle for hydrophobic drugs.

Stably engineered nanobubbles and ultrasound - An effective platform for enhanced macromolecular delivery to representative cells of the retina

Herein we showcase the potential of ultrasound-responsive nanobubbles in enhancing macromolecular permeation through layers of the retina, ultimately leading to significant and direct intracellular delivery; this being effectively demonstrated across three relevant and distinct retinal cell lines. Stably engineered nanobubbles of a highly homogenous and echogenic nature were fully characterised using dynamic light scattering, B-scan ultrasound and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The nanobubbles appeared as spherical liposome-like structures under TEM, accompanied by an opaque luminal core and darkened corona around their periphery, with both features indicative of efficient gas entrapment and adsorption, respectively. A nanobubble +/- ultrasound sweeping study was conducted next, which determined the maximum tolerated dose for each cell line. Detection of underlying cellular stress was verified using the biomarker heat shock protein 70, measured before and after treatment with optimised ultrasound. Next, with safety to nanobubbles and optimised ultrasound demonstrated, each human or mouse-derived cell population was incubated with biotinylated rabbit-IgG in the presence and absence of ultrasound +/- nanobubbles. Intracellular delivery of antibody in each cell type was then quantified using Cy3-streptavidin. Nanobubbles and optimised ultrasound were found to be negligibly toxic across all cell lines tested. Macromolecular internalisation was achieved to significant, yet varying degrees in all three cell lines. The results of this study pave the way towards better understanding mechanisms underlying cellular responsiveness to ultrasound-triggered drug delivery in future ex vivo and in vivo models of the posterior eye.

Current applications of nanoparticles in infectious diseases

For decades infections have been treated easily with drugs. However, in the 21st century, they may become lethal again owing to the development of antimicrobial resistance. Pathogens can become resistant by means of different mechanisms, such as increasing the time they spend in the intracellular environment, where drugs are unable to reach therapeutic levels. Moreover, drugs are also subject to certain problems that decrease their efficacy. This requires the use of high doses, and frequent administrations must be implemented, causing adverse side effects or toxicity. The use of nanoparticle systems can help to overcome such problems and increase drug efficacy. Accordingly, there is considerable current interest in their use as antimicrobial agents against different pathogens like bacteria, virus, fungi or parasites, multidrug-resistant strains and biofilms; as targeting vectors towards specific tissues; as vaccines and as theranostic systems. This review begins with an overview of the different types and characteristics of nanoparticles used to deliver drugs to the target, followed by a review of current research and clinical trials addressing the use of nanoparticles within the field of infectious diseases.

Application of a discovery to targeted LC-MS proteomics approach to identify deregulated proteins associated with idiosyncratic liver toxicity in a rat model of LPS/diclofenac co-administration

Increasing experimental and clinical evidence suggest a contribution of non-drug related risk factors (e.g., underlying disease, bacterial/viral infection) to idiosyncratic drug reactions (IDR). Our previous work showed that co-treatment with bacterial endotoxin (LPS) and therapeutic doses of diclofenac (Dcl), an analgesic associated with drug idiosyncrasy in patients, induced severe hepatotoxicity in rats. Here, we used an integrated discovery to targeted LC-MS proteomics approach to identify mechanistically relevant liver and plasma proteins modulated by LPS/Dcl treatment, potentially applicable as early markers for IDRs. Based on pre-screening results and their role in liver toxicity, 47 liver and 15 plasma proteins were selected for targeted LC-MS analysis. LPS alone significantly changed the levels of 19 and 3 of these proteins, respectively. T-kininogen-1, previously suggested as a marker of drug-induced liver injury, was markedly elevated in plasma after repeated Dcl treatment in the absence of hepatotoxicity, possibly indicating clinically silent stress. Dcl both alone and in combination with LPS, caused up-regulation of the ATP synthase subunits (ATP5J, ATPA, and ATPB), suggesting that Dcl may sensitize cells against additional stress factors, such as LPS through generation of mitochondrial stress. Additionally, depletion of plasma fibrinogen was observed in the co-treatment group, consistent with an increased hepatic fibrin deposition and suspected contribution of the hemostatic system to IDRs. In contrast, several proteins previously suggested as liver biomarkers, such as clusterin, did not correlate with liver injury in this model. Taken together, these analyses revealed proteomic changes in a rat model of LPS/Dcl co-administration that could offer mechanistic insight and may serve as biomarkers or safety alert for a drug's potential to cause IDRs.

Cationic additives in nanosystems activate cytotoxicity and inflammatory response of human neutrophils: lipid nanoparticles versus polymeric nanoparticles

This report compares the effect of lipid and polymeric nanoparticles upon human neutrophils in the presence of cationic surfactants. Nanostructured lipid carriers and poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles were manufactured as lipid and polymeric systems, respectively. Some cytotoxic and proinflammatory mediators such as lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), elastase, O₂^•−, and intracellular Ca²⁺ were examined. The nanoparticles showed a size of 170–225 nm. Incorporation of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide or soyaethyl morpholinium ethosulfate, the cationic surfactant, converted zeta potential from a negative to a positive charge. Nanoparticles without cationic surfactants revealed a negligible change on immune and inflammatory responses. Cationic surfactants in both nanoparticulate and free forms induced cell death and the release of mediators. Lipid nanoparticles generally demonstrated a greater response compared to polymeric nanoparticles. The neutrophil morphology observed by electron microscopy confirmed this trend. Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide as the coating material showed more significant activation of neutrophils than soyaethyl morpholinium ethosulfate. Confocal microscope imaging displayed a limited internalization of nanoparticles into neutrophils. It is proposed that cationic nanoparticles interact with the cell membrane, triggering membrane disruption and the following Ca²⁺ influx. The elevation of intracellular Ca²⁺ induces degranulation and oxidative stress. The consequence of these effects is cytotoxicity and cell death. Caution should be taken when selecting feasible nanoparticulate formulations and cationic additives for consideration of applicability and toxicity.

Evaluation of the hepatotoxic risk caused by lead acetate via skin exposure using a proteomic approach

Lead compounds exhibit a high degree of cytotoxicity and carcinogenicity. We evaluated the impact of lead acetate on the liver by skin exposure as well as the changes in protein profiles reflecting pathogenic processes. Functional proteomic tools showed that the most meaningful protein changes were involved in protein folding, ER stress, and apoptosis in the presence of an organic lead compound. Treatment with lead acetate also elicits intracellular ROS levels as well as carbonyl modification of chaperone proteins, suggesting that lead might trigger the unfolded protein response due to oxidative stress. Lead application induced ER stress, as indicated by the promotion of GRP78 and by increased expression of the transcription factors ATF6, IRE1α, and PERK. Moreover, upregulation of GRP75 may participate in lead-caused hepatic cytotoxicity while abrogation of GRP75 appears to attenuate the inhibition of cell growth. Our findings demonstrate that accumulation of organic lead in the liver can induce oxidative imbalance and protein impairment that may result in ER stress followed by liver injuries. Hepatic proteome profiles delineate a finer picture of protein networks and metabolic pathways primarily involved in lead-initiated hepatic toxicity via skin exposure.

Ultrasound-triggered phase transition sensitive magnetic fluorescent nanodroplets as a multimodal imaging contrast agent in rat and mouse model

Ultrasound-triggered phase transition sensitive nanodroplets with multimodal imaging functionality were prepared via premix Shirasu porous glass (SPG) membrane emulsification method. The nanodroplets with fluorescence dye DiR and SPIO nanoparticles (DiR-SPIO-NDs) had a polymer shell and a liquid perfluoropentane (PFP) core. The as-formed DiR-SPIO-NDs have a uniform size of 385±5.0 nm with PDI of 0.169±0.011. The TEM and microscopy imaging showed that the DiR-SPIO-NDs existed as core-shell spheres, and DiR and SPIO nanoparticles dispersed in the shell or core. The MTT and hemolysis studies demonstrated that the nanodroplets were biocompatible and safe. Moreover, the proposed nanodroplets exhibited significant ultrasound-triggered phase transition property under clinical diagnostic ultrasound irradiation due to the vaporization of PFP inside. Meanwhile, the high stability and R₂ relaxivity of the DiR-SPIO-NDs suggested its applicability in MRI. The in vivo T₂-weighted images of MRI and fluorescence images both showed that the image contrast in liver and spleen of rats and mice model were enhanced after the intravenous injection of DiR-SPIO-NDs. Furthermore, the ultrasound imaging (US) in mice tumor as well as MRI and fluorescence imaging in liver of rats and mice showed that the DiR-SPIO-NDs had long-lasting contrast ability in vivo. These in vitro and in vivo findings suggested that DiR-SPIO-NDs could potentially be a great MRI/US/fluorescence multimodal imaging contrast agent in the diagnosis of liver tissue diseases.

Cationic surfactants in the form of nanoparticles and micelles elicit different human neutrophil responses: a toxicological study

Cationic surfactants are an ingredient commonly incorporated into nanoparticles for clinical practicability; however, the toxicity of cationic surfactants in nanoparticles is not fully elucidated. We aimed to evaluate the inflammatory responses of cationic nanobubbles and micelles in human neutrophils. Soyaethyl morpholinium ethosulfate (SME) and hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) are the two cationic surfactants employed in this study. The zeta potential of CTAB nanobubbles was 80 mV, which was the highest among all formulations. Nanobubbles, without cationic surfactants, showed no cytotoxic effects on neutrophils in terms of inflammatory responses. Cationic nanobubbles caused a concentration-dependent cytotoxicity of degranulation (elastase release) and membrane damage (release of lactate dehydrogenase, LDH). Among all nanoparticles and micelles, CTAB-containing nanosystems showed the greatest inflammatory responses. A CTAB nanobubble diluent (1/150) increased the LDH release 80-fold. Propidium iodide staining and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) verified cell death and morphological change of neutrophils treated by CTAB nanobubbles. SME, in a micelle form, strengthened the inflammatory response more than SME-loaded nanobubbles. Membrane interaction and subsequent Ca(2+) influx were the mechanisms that triggered inflammation. The information obtained from this work is beneficial in designing nanoparticulate formulations for balancing clinical activity and toxicity.

Cyanine 5.5 conjugated nanobubbles as a tumor selective contrast agent for dual ultrasound-fluorescence imaging in a mouse model

Nanobubbles and microbubbles are non-invasive ultrasound imaging contrast agents that may potentially enhance diagnosis of tumors. However, to date, both nanobubbles and microbubbles display poor in vivo tumor-selectivity over non-targeted organs such as liver. We report here cyanine 5.5 conjugated nanobubbles (cy5.5-nanobubbles) of a biocompatible chitosan-vitamin C lipid system as a dual ultrasound-fluorescence contrast agent that achieved tumor-selective imaging in a mouse tumor model. Cy5.5-nanobubble suspension contained single bubble spheres and clusters of bubble spheres with the size ranging between 400-800 nm. In the in vivo mouse study, enhancement of ultrasound signals at tumor site was found to persist over 2 h while tumor-selective fluorescence emission was persistently observed over 24 h with intravenous injection of cy5.5-nanobubbles. In vitro cell study indicated that cy5.5-flurescence dye was able to accumulate in cancer cells due to the unique conjugated nanobubble structure. Further in vivo fluorescence study suggested that cy5.5-nanobubbles were mainly located at tumor site and in the bladder of mice. Subsequent analysis confirmed that accumulation of high fluorescence was present at the intact subcutaneous tumor site and in isolated tumor tissue but not in liver tissue post intravenous injection of cy5.5-nanobubbles. All these results led to the conclusion that cy5.5-nanobubbles with unique crosslinked chitosan-vitamin C lipid system have achieved tumor-selective imaging in vivo.

Development of hyperglycemia and diabetes in captive Polish bank voles

Diabetes has been detected in Danish and Swedish bank voles (Myodes glareolus). There are no data, however, concerning the prevalence of diabetes in populations from other geographic regions. We investigated the frequency and physiological effects of glucose metabolism disorders in captive bank voles from Poland. Single measurement of fasting blood glucose concentration performed in the 3-4month old captive-born bank Polish voles without any disease symptoms showed that 8% of individuals (22/284) displayed an impaired fasting glucose (IFG, blood glucose (BG) ≥100mg/dL) and 1% (4/284) showed hyperglycemia (BG ≥126mg/dL) which could suggest diabetes. Next, we analyzed blood glucose in samples taken once a month from an additional cohort of bank voles with (FHD), or without (H), a family history of diabetes. The prevalence of IFG at age six months was 26% (16/62) among bank voles from the H group. In the FHD group the prevalence increased to 49% (43/88), and additional 12% (11/88) became diabetic (DB, BG ≥126mg/dL at two time points). Postnatal stress (three maternal deprivations before weaning) did not affect the risk of developing IFG or DB in H voles, but significantly reduced the frequency of glucose metabolism disorders (IFG and DB combined) in FHD voles. IFG was associated with hyperinsulinemia, but not with other biochemical disturbances. Diabetic animals displayed a progressive malformation and vacuolization of β-cells in the pancreas, without visible leukocytic infiltrations. In summary, our results indicate that Polish captive bank voles can develop diabetes, which shows features of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes in humans. Risk of diabetes is higher in animal with FHD.