Estimation of dietary exposure to acrylamide of Polish teenagers from an urban environment

Results of the BfR MEAL Study: Acrylamide in foods from the German market with highest levels in vegetable crisps

Acrylamide (AA) is formed in foods due to thermal processes. AA was analysed in 230 foods in the first German Total Diet Study and the highest mean levels of AA were found in vegetable crisps (1430 μg/kg), followed by potato pancakes (558) μg/kg) and pan-fried potatoes (450 μg/kg). In various foods, e.g. French fries and sweet potatoes, AA was also tested for different browning degrees and cooking methods. French fries cooked to a browning degree of 3 in all cooking methods exceeded the benchmark level set by the European Union. French fries prepared in the oven and sweet potatoes in the air fryer had the lowest AA levels. In foods from the German market, AA was found also in foods such as popcorn (243 μg/kg), salty sticks (190 μg/kg), and dark chocolate (130 μg/kg). Levels of AA found in our study may support future dietary exposure and food safety assessments.

Review of the Terminology, Approaches, and Formulations Used in the Guidelines on Quantitative Risk Assessment of Chemical Hazards in Food

This paper reviews the published terminology, mathematical models, and the possible approaches used to characterise the risk of foodborne chemical hazards, particularly pesticides, metals, mycotoxins, acrylamide, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The results confirmed the wide variability of the nomenclature used, e.g., 28 different ways of referencing exposure, 13 of cancer risk, or 9 of slope factor. On the other hand, a total of 16 equations were identified to formulate all the risk characterisation parameters of interest. Therefore, the present study proposes a terminology and formulation for some risk characterisation parameters based on the guidelines of international organisations and the literature review. The mathematical model used for non-genotoxic hazards is a ratio in all cases. However, the authors used the probability of cancer or different ratios, such as the margin of exposure (MOE) for genotoxic hazards. For each effect studied per hazard, the non-genotoxic effect was mostly studied in pesticides (79.73%), the genotoxic effect was mostly studied in PAHs (71.15%), and both effects were mainly studied in metals (59.4%). The authors of the works reviewed generally opted for a deterministic approach, although most of those who assessed the risk for mycotoxins or the ratio and risk for acrylamide used the probabilistic approach.

Dietary Exposure to Acrylamide in Spanish University Canteens by the Duplicate Diet Method

During the university period, many students adopt new dietary patterns, sometimes including the excessive consumption of highly processed foods, which can expose them to process contaminants such as acrylamide. This research aimed to evaluate the dietary exposure to acrylamide of Spanish university students in their campus canteens using the duplicate diet method, and to estimate the associated health risks based on their food consumption habits. Apart from potato-based foods, the analysed food/meals contained non-detectable or low levels of acrylamide (<63 µg/kg). Two exposure scenarios were considered, depending on whether students selected salad (lowest exposure) or processed potatoes (highest exposure) as side dishes. The frequent consumption of processed potatoes could increase acrylamide intake from 6.5 to 26.4 µg/day. Due to their lower body weight, women had a higher risk of acrylamide exposure in both scenarios. The margin of exposure (MOE) values for neoplastic effects indicated high levels of health concern, even only considering the main meal of the day. Furthermore, the risk of acrylamide exposure could increase by more than four times depending on the side dish selected by the students. This research highlights the need to promote healthy dietary habits among young people, encouraging the selection of safer food options in terms of food processing contaminants.

Toxicity, formation, contamination, determination and mitigation of acrylamide in thermally processed plant-based foods and herbal medicines: A review

Thermal processing is one of the important techniques for most of the plant-based food and herb medicines before consumption and application in order to meet the specific requirement. The plant and herbs are rich in amino acids and reducing sugars, and thermal processing may lead to Maillard reaction, resulting as a high risk of acrylamide pollution. Acrylamide, an organic pollutant that can be absorbed by the body through the respiratory tract, digestive tract, skin and mucous membranes, has potential carcinogenicity, neurological, genetic, reproductive and developmental toxicity. Therefore, it is significant to conduct pollution determination and risk assessment for quality assurance and security of medication. This review demonstrates state-of-the-art research of acrylamide focusing on the toxicity, formation, contamination, determination, and mitigation in taking food and herb medicine, to provide reference for scientific processing and ensure the security of consumers.

Acrylamide-induced meiotic arrest of spermatocytes in adolescent mice by triggering excessive DNA strand breaks: Potential therapeutic effects of resveratrol

Background: Baked carbohydrate-rich foods are the main source of acrylamide (AA) in the general population and are widely consumed by teenagers. Considering the crucial development of the reproductive system during puberty, the health risks posed by AA in adolescent males have raised public concern.Methods: In this study, we exposed 3-week-old male pubertal mice to AA for 4 weeks to evaluate its effect on spermatogenesis using computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA) and historical analysis. Flow cytometric analysis and meiocyte spreading assay were conducted to assess meiosis in mice. The expression of meiosis-related proteins and double-strand break (DSB) proteins were evaluated by immunoblot analyses. Additionally, isolated spermatocytes were used to explore the role of resveratrol in AA-induced damages of meiosis.Results: Our results showed that AA decreased the testicular and epididymal indexes, reduced sperm count and motility, and induced morphological disruption of the testes in pubertal mice. Subsequent meiotic analysis revealed that AA increased the proportion of 4C spermatocytes and decreased the proportion of 1C spermatids. The expression levels of meiosis-related proteins (SYCP3, Cyclin A1 and CDK2) were downregulated, and signaling proteins (γH2AX, p-CHK2 and p-ATM) expression levels were upregulated in AA-treated mice testes. Similar expression patterns were observed in primary spermatocytes treated with AA and these effects were reversed significantly by resveratrol.Conclusions: Our results indicate that AA induces meiotic arrest via persistent activation of DSBs, which may contribute to AA-compromised spermatogenesis. Resveratrol could serve as a potential therapeutic agent against AA-induced meiotic toxicity. These data highlight the importance of natural product supplementation for treating AA-related reproductive toxicity.

Risk characterization of dietary acrylamide exposure and associated factors in the Portuguese population

Acrylamide exposure, mainly resulting from food cooking and processing, has been associated with a higher risk of health problems, due to genotoxic effects. This study aims to estimate acrylamide dietary exposure of the Portuguese population and its associated factors. Dietary data collected through 2 non-consecutive 24 hour recalls or food diaries from a representative sample of the Portuguese population from the National Food, Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey was used (n = 5811; 3-84 years). Occurrence data of acrylamide in food were obtained from EFSA. The margins of exposure (MOE) were calculated for peripheral neuropathy and neoplastic effects. The association between acrylamide and socio-demographic characteristics was estimated through linear regression models. For the total population, the estimated median daily dietary exposure per body weight to acrylamide was 0.38 µg/kg/day, ranging from 0.14 to 0.88 µg/kg/day for the 5^th and 95^th percentile, respectively. Children aged between 1-2 years had the highest acrylamide exposure (median 0.75 µg/kg/day, 95^th percentile 1.41 µg/kg/day). For the peripheral neuropathy and neoplastic effects, the median MOE estimated was 1140 and 451, respectively. Men compared to women had a higher acrylamide dietary exposure, as well as smokers compared to non-smokers. Elderly and less educated individuals were inversely associated with acrylamide exposure. 'Bread and rusks' (24.2%) were the main source of acrylamide, followed by 'coffee' (21.3%). The current dietary exposure to acrylamide in the Portuguese population is of concern mainly regarding neoplastic effects. Our results point to the need to reduce exposure to acrylamide, especially in men, young children, higher educated individuals and smokers.

Acrylamide in Corn-Based Thermally Processed Foods: A Review

Widely consumed thermally processed corn-based foods can have a great contribution to acrylamide dietary intake, thus bearing a high public health risk and requiring attention and application of strategies for its reduction. This paper reviews the literature on the acrylamide content of corn-based food products present in the market around the world. The potential of corn for acrylamide formation due to its content of free asparagine and reducing sugars is described. Human exposure to acrylamide from corn-based foods is also discussed. The content of acrylamide in corn/tortilla chips, popcorn, and corn flakes, as widely consumed products all over the world, is reported in the literature to be between 5 and 6360 μg/kg, between <LOD and 2220 μg/kg and between <LOD and 1186 μg/kg, respectively. Although these products are important acrylamide sources in the common diet of all age populations, higher intake values occurred among younger generations.

A Review of Dietary Intake of Acrylamide in Humans

The dietary intake of acrylamide (AA) is a health concern, and food is being monitored worldwide, but the extent of AA exposure from the diet is uncertain. The aim of this review was to provide an overview of estimated dietary intake. We performed a PubMed search identifying studies that used dietary questionnaires and recalls to estimate total dietary AA intake. A total of 101 studies were included, corresponding to 68 original study populations from 26 countries. Questionnaires were used in 57 studies, dietary recalls were used in 33 studies, and 11 studies used both methods. The estimated median AA intake ranged from 0.02 to 1.53 μg/kg body weight/day between studies. Children were represented in 25 studies, and the body-weight-adjusted estimated AA intake was up to three times higher for children than adults. The majority of studies were from Europe (n = 65), Asia (n = 17), and the USA (n = 12). Studies from Asia generally estimated lower intakes than studies from Europe and the USA. Differences in methods undermine direct comparison across studies. The assessment of AA intake through dietary questionnaires and recalls has limitations. The integration of these methods with the analysis of validated biomarkers of exposure/internal dose would improve the accuracy of dietary AA intake exposure estimation. This overview shows that AA exposure is widespread and the large variation across and within populations shows a potential for reduced intake among those with the highest exposure.

Acrylamide in bread: a review on formation, health risk assessment, and determination by analytical techniques

Acrylamide is a water-soluble toxicant found in high-protein and carbohydrate-containing foods exposed to high temperature like bread as the staple foodstuff. This toxicant is mainly formed via Maillard reaction. The potential adverse effects of acrylamide especially possible carcinogenicity in human through dietary exposure necessitate its monitoring. Regarding the existence of its precursors in wheat bread formulation as well as extreme consumption of bread by most population and diversity of bread types, its acrylamide level needs to be investigated. The indicative value for acrylamide in wheat bread is set at 80 μg/kg. Consequently, its determination using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), or capillary electrophoresis can be helpful considering both the risk assessment and quality control aspects. In this respect, methods based on LC-MS/MS show good recovery and within laboratory repeatability with a limit of detection of 3-20 μg/kg and limit of quantification of 10-50 μg/kg which is suitable for the immediate requirements for food product monitoring and calculation of consumer exposure.

Carcinogenic and neurotoxic risks of dietary acrylamide consumed through cereals among the Lebanese population

The present study aims to determine the carcinogenic and neurotoxic risks associated with acrylamide intake from cereal products. Analysis on a UPLC-MS/MS spectrometer revealed that oat-based and mixed cereals contain the highest amount of acrylamide among cereal products with levels as high as 271 and 348 μg/kg, respectively. Children were shown to exhibit both carcinogenic and neurotoxic risks regardless of the type of cereal product consumed. For adults above 50 years of age, only consumers of oat-based cereal products seem to exhibit carcinogenic and neurotoxic risks. To avoid a carcinogenic and neurotoxic risk among the Lebanese population, we propose that food processors set the maximum tolerable concentration for acrylamide in cereal products at 94.8 μg/kg product, a value which is threefolds lower than the average acrylamide levels found in this study. Alternatively, and unreasonably, the average Lebanese population and children among the Lebanese population may choose to cut down on cereal consumption by 1.7- and 7.2-folds respectively, should they want to avoid a health hazard as a result of acrylamide intake. The industry should also respond by optimizing the production process in a way to reduce acrylamide levels in cereals.

Acrylamide content of collected food products from Tehran's market: a risk assessment study

Acrylamide concentration in food products collected from the Tehran market was investigated by the aid of a dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) system coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Also, the dietary exposure distribution and related potential risk for acrylamide ingestion were estimated by the Monte Carlo simulation (MCS). The highest and lowest mean concentration of acrylamide was detected in coffee and roasted nuts samples as 549 and 133 μg/kg, respectively. The mean acrylamide dietary exposure values for children (3-10 years), adolescents (11-17 years), adults (18-60 years), and seniors (61-96 years) were estimated to be 1.81, 1.02, 0.61, and 0.53 μg/kg body weight (BW)/day, respectively. In all age groups, except children, the estimated exposure in men and boys was higher than that in women and girls. Bread, despite containing low acrylamide content groups (157 μg/kg while compared with other, except roasted nuts), showed with the highest contribution rate in all age groups due to its high consumption rate. The estimated incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for all age groups was noted as greater than 10^-4 indicating serious risk to the population. Moreover, the margin of exposure (MOE) values based on carcinogenicity showed health concern to all age groups (< 10,000). Regarding the non-carcinogenic risk, the target hazard quotient (THQ) was lower than 1, and MOE based on neurotoxicity was higher than 125 (safety thresholds), which represented negligible and ignorable risk in all age groups except in a small group of children and adolescents. Graphical abstract.

How Far is the Spanish Snack Sector from Meeting the Acrylamide Regulation 2017/2158?

In 2017, the European Commission published Regulation 2017/2158 establishing mitigation measures and benchmark levels to reduce acrylamide in foods. Acrylamide was determined in seventy potato crisp samples commercialized in Spain. The aim was to update knowledge about the global situation in the snack sector and evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation strategies applied, especially since the publication of the Regulation. Results were compared with data previously published in 2004, 2008, and 2014, assessing the evolution over recent years. Average acrylamide content in 2019 (664 µg/kg, range 89-1930 μg/kg) was 55.3% lower compared to 2004, 10.3% lower compared to 2008 and practically similar to results from 2014. Results support the effectiveness of mitigation measures implemented by Spanish potato crisp manufacturers. However, 27% of samples exhibited concentrations above the benchmark level established in the Regulation (750 μg/kg), which suggests that efforts to reduce acrylamide formation in this sector must be continued. Besides the variability seen between samples, acrylamide significantly correlated with the color parameter a*, which enables discrimination of whether potato crisps contain above or below benchmark content. The calculated margin of exposure for carcinogenicity was below the safety limit, which should be considered from a public health point of view.

Acrylamide Content of Experimental and Commercial Flatbreads

Acrylamide, formed in baked and fried plant-based foods, is reported to induce numerous adverse effects in cells, animals, and humans. Examples from the literature show that processed potato- and cereal-based products are two major food types that seem to contribute the highest amounts of acrylamide to the diet worldwide. To meet both the demand for gluten-free products and the interest in alternative grains, we previously developed recipes for flatbreads using a variety of different grains. In this study, we determined the acrylamide content of 15 experimental flatbreads made from a variety of flours and 21 commercial flatbreads. The application of a validated, highly sensitive HPLC/MS method revealed that flatbreads made with the following flours baked at 195.5 °C for 2 min had very low (<10 μg/kg) levels of acrylamide: brown rice, buckwheat, cornmeal, millet, oat, and quinoa. The acrylamide levels of the following flatbreads were 14 to 59 μg/kg: rye, sorghum, soy, wheat, commercial pita, pita crackers, pizza, naan, and lavash. Wheat-based matzo breads, which are rapidly baked to a crisp texture at high heat (∼400 °C), contained 101 to 504 μg/kg acrylamide. Potato-based products were some of the highest of the products tested, ranging from 153 (potato pancakes) to 2,070 (potato-containing gluten-free matzos) μg/kg acrylamide. Except for the potato-containing products, the flatbreads made in this study were lower in acrylamide content (<3 to 21.3 μg/kg) than any of the commercial products tested. Of these experimental flatbreads, wheat- and sorghum-based products were the highest. Flatbreads from alternative grains can result in gluten-free products with high nutritional value and less acrylamide. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Acrylamide formation is dependent on both the composition of the food product and the method of cooking. Flatbreads have the potential to be high in acrylamide due to cooking methods which lead to the development of desirable browning products. Flatbreads developed in this study using alternative and ancient grains were mostly lower in acrylamide content than their wheat counterpart, suggesting that they can serve as a low-acrylamide, gluten-free functional food.

Overview on mitigation of acrylamide in starchy fried and baked foods

Acrylamide in fried and baked foods has the potential to cause toxic effects in animals and humans. A major challenge lies in developing an effective strategy for acrylamide mitigation in foods without altering its basic properties. Food scientists around the world have developed various methods to mitigate the presence of acrylamide in fried food products. Mitigation techniques using additives such as salts, amino acids, cations and organic acids along with blanching of foods have reduced the concentration of acrylamide. The use of secondary metabolites such as polyphenols also reduces acrylamide concentration in fried food products. Other mitigation techniques such as asparaginase pre-treatment and low-temperature air frying with chitosan have been effective in mitigating the concentration of acrylamide. The combined pre-treatment process along with the use of additives is the latest trend in acrylamide mitigation. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Mitigation measures for acrylamide reduction in dough-based potato snacks during their expansion by frying

Acrylamide (AA) can occur in fried and baked food products which contain reducing sugars and free asparagine. Recently, the European Commission established mitigation measures and benchmark levels for the reduction of AA in food. The content of reducing sugars in raw materials and the temperature and time of the expansion process by frying were considered in this study of the preparation of dough-based potato snacks, mainly destined for children. Final moisture and bulk density were also evaluated. An increase from 0.15 to 1.0% in reducing sugar content, due to the addition of micro-ingredients in the dough, caused a remarkable AA increase of five- to six-fold. During frying at temperatures between 175 and 195°C, AA was produced after only a few seconds; the AA content was affected more by process time than by temperature. The best temperature/time conditions for expansion by frying were 185°C for 8 s.

Monitoring of acrylamide carcinogen in selected heat-treated foods from Saudi Arabia

The present study reports the outcomes of assessment on acrylamide levels in selected heat-treated foods of diverse brands and origins from Saudi Arabia. In chips, acrylamide level was detected from 28 to 954 µg/kg, sample 7 (salted) contained higher amount (954 μg/kg) whereas, sample 8 (labneh and mint) comparatively produced lower amount (28 μg/kg). Nuts and dried fruits have generated acrylamide from 2 to 93 µg/kg, salted peanut of Indian origin produced higher amount (93 μg/kg) while apricot (plain) relatively generated lower amount (2 μg/kg). The levels of acrylamide in biscuits, pastry, cacao, chocolate, olive, cheese, corn, oat and wheat flakes, and bread were found from 26 to 234 µg/kg. Biscuits generated high concentration (234 μg/kg) while corn flakes fairly generated lower amount (26 μg/kg). The obtained results have shown a great variation of acrylamide content and reason might be due to foods type, cooking ingredients and, cooking methods, time and temperature.

Determination of acrylamide levels in potato crisps and other snacks and exposure risk assessment through a Margin of Exposure approach

Potato crisps, corn-based extruded snacks and other savoury snacks are very popular products especially among younger generations. These products could be a potential source of acrylamide (AA), a toxic compound which could develop during frying and baking processes. The purpose of this study was the assessment of the dietary intake to AA across six groups of consumers divided according to age through the consumption of potato crisps and other snacks, in order to eventually evaluate the margin of exposure (MOE) related to neurotoxic and carcinogenic critical endpoints. Different brands of potato crisps and other popular snacks were analyzed through a matrix solid-phase dispersion method followed by a bromination step and GC-MS quantification. The concentration of detected AA ranged from 21 to 3444 ng g^-1 and the highest level occurred in potato crisps samples which showed a median value of 968 ng g^-1. The risk characterization through MOE assessment revealed that five out of six consumers groups showed higher exposure values associated with an augmented carcinogenic risk.

Occurrence of acrylamide carcinogen in Arabic coffee Qahwa, coffee and tea from Saudi Arabian market

The present work describes the outcomes of the assessment on acrylamide contents in a number of thermally treated foods (Arabic coffee Qahwa, coffee and tea) obtained from the Saudi Arabian markets. A total of 56 food samples of different brands and origin were studied, the amounts of acrylamide in Arabic coffee Qahwa, coffee and tea were obtained in the range of 10 to 682 μg kg-1. In comparison to coffee (152-682 μg kg-1), the Arabic coffee Qahwa (73-108 μg kg-1) and tea (10-97 μg kg-1) contain lower amounts of acrylamide. Among the analyzed samples, the green tea contained low amounts of acrylamide ranged from 10 to 18 μg kg-1, and thus the green tea could be considered as a healthier hot drink. A great variation of acrylamide formation has been observed in these food products. This divergence may be due to the initial concentration of amino acids especially asparagines and reducing sugars in food products, in addition to roasting temperature and time, pH and water activity. The obtained data can also be used in epidemiological investigation to estimate the acrylamide exposure from nutritional survey.

Acrylamide: inhibition of formation in processed food and mitigation of toxicity in cells, animals, and humans

Potentially toxic acrylamide is largely derived from the heat-inducing reactions between the amino group of the amino acid asparagine and carbonyl groups of glucose and fructose in plant-derived foods including cereals, coffees, almonds, olives, potatoes, and sweet potatoes. This review surveys and consolidates the following dietary aspects of acrylamide: distribution in food, exposure and consumption by diverse populations, reduction of the content in different food categories, and mitigation of adverse in vivo effects. Methods to reduce acrylamide levels include selecting commercial food with a low acrylamide content, selecting cereal and potato varieties with low levels of asparagine and reducing sugars, selecting processing conditions that minimize acrylamide formation, adding food-compatible compounds and plant extracts to food formulations before processing that inhibit acrylamide formation during processing of cereal products, coffees, teas, olives, almonds, and potato products, and reducing multiorgan toxicity (antifertility, carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, teratogenicity). The herein described observations and recommendations are of scientific interest for food chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology, but also have the potential to benefit nutrition, food safety, and human health.