Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside promotes the biosynthesis of progesterone through the protection of mitochondrial function in Pb-exposed rat leydig cells

Mechanism of action of anthocyanin on the detoxification of foodborne contaminants-A review of recent literature

Foodborne contaminants refer to substances that are present in food and threaten food safety. Due to the progress in detection technology and the rising concerns regarding public health, there has been a surge in research focusing on the dangers posed by foodborne contaminants. These studies aim to explore and implement strategies that are both safe and efficient in mitigating the associated risks. Anthocyanins, a class of flavonoids, are abundantly present in various plant species, such as blueberries, grapes, purple sweet potatoes, cherries, mulberries, and others. Numerous epidemiological and nutritional intervention studies have provided evidence indicating that the consumption of anthocyanins through dietary intake offers a range of protective effects against the detrimental impact of foodborne contaminants. The present study aims to differentiate between two distinct subclasses of foodborne contaminants: those that are generated during the processing of food and those that originate from the surrounding environment. Furthermore, the impact of anthocyanins on foodborne contaminants was also summarized based on a review of articles published within the last 10 years. However, further investigation is warranted regarding the mechanism by which anthocyanins target foodborne contaminants, as well as the potential impact of individual variations in response. Additionally, it is important to note that there is currently a dearth of clinical research examining the efficacy of anthocyanins as an intervention for mitigating the effects of foodborne pollutants. Thus, by exploring the detoxification effect and mechanism of anthocyanins on foodborne pollutants, this review thereby provides evidence, supporting the utilization of anthocyanin-rich diets as a means to mitigate the detrimental effects of foodborne contaminants.

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside Mitigates the Ovarian Defect Induced by Zearalenone via p53-GADD45a Signaling during Primordial Follicle Assembly

Zearalenone (ZEN) is well known as a kind of endocrine disruptor whose exposure is capable of causing reproductive toxicity in animals. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) is a derivative of cyanidin and owns multiple biofunctions, and prior efforts have suggested that C3G has therapeutic actions for reproductive diseases. In this article, a ZEN exposure model during primordial follicle assembly was constructed using the in vitro culture platform of neonatal mouse ovaries. We investigated the protective effect of C3G on ZEN-induced ovarian toxicity during primordial follicle assembly in mice, as well as its potential mechanism. Interestingly, we observed that C3G could effectively protect the ovary from ZEN damage, mainly by restoring primordial follicle assembly, which upregulated the expression of LHX8 and SOHLH1 proteins and relieved ZEN-induced DNA damage. Next, to explore the mechanism by which C3G rescued ZEN-induced injury, we performed RNA sequencing (RNA-seq). The bioinformatic analysis illustrated that the rescue pathway of C3G was associated with p53-Gadd45a signaling and cell cycle. Then, western blotting and flow cytometry results revealed that C3G restored the expression levels of cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (CDK6) and cyclin D2 (CCND2) and regulated the ovarian cell cycle to normal. In conclusion, our findings manifested that C3G could alleviate ZEN-induced primordial follicle assembly impairment by restoring the cell cycle involved in p53-GADD45a signaling.

LncRNA profiles of Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside ameliorated Zearalenone-induced damage in porcine granulosa cells

Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), a class of RNA molecules with transcripts longer than 200 nt, is crucial for maintaining animal reproductive function. Zearalenone (ZEN) damaged animal reproduction by targeting ovarian granulosa cells (GCs), especially in pigs. Nonetheless, it is not quite clear that whether Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) exert effects on porcine GCs (pGCs) after ZEN exposure by altering lncRNA expression. Here, we sought to gain novel information regarding C3G protect against damages induced by ZEN in pGCs. The pGCs were divided into control (Ctrl), ZEN, ZEN + C3G (Z + C), and C3G groups. Results revealed that C3G effectively increased cell viability and suppressed ZEN-induced apoptosis in pGCs. 87 and 82 differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs) were identified in ZEN vs. Ctrl and Z + C vs. ZEN group, respectively. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis observed that the DELs were related to cell metabolism and cell-matrix adhesion biological processes. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis found that the DELs were associated with the phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases (PI3K)-protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathway. In brief, we demonstrated that C3G could shield apoptosis induced by ZEN, which may be connected with the changes of lncRNA expression profiles in pGCs. This study complemented our understanding of the genetic basis and molecular mechanisms by which C3G mitigated the toxicity of ZEN in pGCs.

Association between female circulating heavy metal concentration and abortion: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective

This study aimed to evaluate the association between blood heavy metal (zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd)) concentrations and spontaneous abortion (SA) and recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) and explore the possible endocrine dysfunction associated with it.

Methods

A literature search was performed in the PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases up to April 2023. The overall effects were expressed as the standard mean difference (SMD). Subgroup analysis was performed according to the type of abortion (SA or RPL). Stata 16.0 was utilized for data analysis.

Results

Based on the integrated findings, abortion women showed significantly lower Zn (SMD = -1.05, 95% CI: -1.74 to -0.36, p = 0.003) and Cu concentrations (SMD = -1.42, 95% CI: -1.97 to -0.87, p <0.001) and higher Pb (SMD = 1.47, 95% CI: 0.89-2.05, p <0.001) and Cd concentrations (SMD = 1.15, 95% CI: 0.45-1.85, p = 0.001) than normal pregnant women. Subgroup analysis showed that Zn and Cu deficiency and Cd and Pb exposure were significantly (p <0.05) associated with RPL, whereas Cu deficiency and Cd and Pb exposure were significantly (p <0.05) associated with SA.

Conclusion

Zn and Cu deficiencies and Pb and Cd exposure were associated with abortion. Endocrine dysfunction, such as insulin resistance, vitamin D insufficiency, and abnormal thyroid and sex hormone concentrations, is thought to be involved in heavy metal-related abortion.

Cyanidin-3-O-Glucoside Rescues Zearalenone-Induced Apoptosis via the ITGA7-PI3K-AKT Signaling Pathway in Porcine Ovarian Granulosa Cells

Zearalenone (ZEN) is an important secondary metabolite of Fusarium fungi, exposure to which can cause reproductive disorders through its effects on ovarian granulosa cells (GCs) in many mammals, especially in pigs. This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) on the ZEN-induced negative effects in porcine GCs (pGCs). The pGCs were treated with 30 µM ZEN and/or 20 µM C3G for 24 h; they were divided into a control (Ctrl) group, ZEN group, ZEN+C3G (Z+C) group, and a C3G group. Bioinformatics analysis was used to systematically screen differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the rescue process. Results showed that C3G could effectively rescue ZEN-induced apoptosis in pGCs, and notably increase cell viability and proliferation. Furthermore, 116 DEGs were identified, and the phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases-protein kinase B (PI3K-AKT) signaling pathway was the center of attention, of which five genes and the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway were confirmed by real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) and/or Western blot (WB). As analyzed, ZEN inhibited mRNA and protein levels of integrin subunit alpha-7 (ITGA7), and promoted the expression of cell cycle inhibition kinase cyclin-D3 (CCND3) and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1 (CDKN1A). After the knock-down of ITGA7 by siRNA, the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway was significantly inhibited. Meanwhile, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression decreased, and apoptosis rates and pro-apoptotic proteins increased. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that C3G exhibited significant protective effects on the ZEN-induced inhibition of proliferation and apoptosis via the ITGA7-PI3K-AKT pathway.

Malvidin-3-O-Glucoside Ameliorates Cadmium-Mediated Cell Dysfunction in the Estradiol Generation of Human Granulosa Cells

Cadmium (Cd) is a frequent environmental pollutant associated with biological toxicity that can harm female reproduction. Anthocyanins have been reported to reduce the toxicity of Cd. In the present study, the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of malvidin-3-O-glucoside (M3G) against the toxicity of Cd on female reproduction in KGN cells (human ovarian granulosa-like tumor cells) were investigated. After treating cells with 10 µmol/L cadmium chloride, the results showed that M3G lessened Cd-induced KGN cell cytotoxicity better than malvidin and malvidin-3,5-O-diglucoside. Additionally, M3G significantly decreased the Cd-induced generation of reactive oxygen species, inhibited the Cd-induced arrest of the G2/M phase of the cell cycle, and increased estradiol (E2) production. According to transcriptomic results, M3G reduced the abnormal expression of genes that responded to estrogen. Additionally, M3G promoted the endogenous synthesis and secretion of E2 by controlling the expression of CYP17A1 and HSD17B7. The current findings indicated that M3G is of great potential to prevent Cd-induced female reproductive impairment as a dietary supplement.

Bone morphogenetic protein 4 inhibits rat stem/progenitor Leydig cell development and regeneration via SMAD-dependent and SMAD-independent signaling

Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) is an important member of the transforming growth factor-β superfamily. BMP4 is expressed in the Leydig cell lineage. We hypothesized that BMP4 might regulate the development of stem/progenitor Leydig cells. The BMP4 receptors, BMPR1A, BMPR1B, and BMPR2 were found to be expressed in progenitor Leydig cells of prepubertal testis and isolated cells. BMP4 at 1 and 10 ng/mL significantly reduced androgen production and down-regulated steroidogenesis-related gene and protein expression possibly by activating the SMAD signaling pathway (increasing SMAD1/5 phosphorylation and SMAD4) at 24 h treatment. BMP4 at 0.1 ng/mL and higher concentrations markedly reduced the EdU labeling index of CD90⁺ stem Leydig cells after 24 h treatment and significantly reduced the number of EdU⁺ stem Leydig cells on the surface of seminiferous tubules after 7 days of culture. BMP4 at 0.01 ng/mL and higher concentrations significantly blocked the differentiation of stem Leydig cells into adult cells, as shown by the reduction of testosterone secretion and the downregulation of Lhcgr, Scarb1, Cyp11a1, Hsd11b1, and Insl3 and their function after 3D seminiferous tubule culture for 3 weeks, and this effect was reversed by co-treatment with the BMP4 antagonists noggin and doxomorphine. In addition, BMP4 also blocked stem Leydig cell differentiation through SMAD-independent signaling pathways (ERK1/2 and AMPK). Ethanedimethane sulfonate (EDS) single injection can result in reduction of testosterone, restoration can happen post treatment. In an in vivo model of Leydig cell regeneration following EDS treatment, intratesticular injection of BMP4 from day 14 to day 28 post-elimination significantly reduced serum testosterone levels and down-regulated the expression of Scarb1, Star, Hsd11b1, and Insl3 and its proteins, possibly through SMAD-dependent and SMAD-independent (ERK1/2 and AMPK) signaling pathways. In conclusion, BMP4 is expressed in cells of the Leydig cell lineage and blocks entry of stem/progenitor Leydig cells into adult Leydig cells through SMAD-dependent and SMAD-independent signaling pathways.

Glycine protects the male reproductive system against lead toxicity via alleviating oxidative stress, preventing sperm mitochondrial impairment, improving kinematics of sperm, and blunting the downregulation of enzymes involved in the steroidogenesis

Lead (Pb) is a highly toxic heavy metal widely dispersed in the environment because of human industrial activities. Many studies revealed that Pb could adversely affect several organs, including the male reproductive system. Pb-induced reproductive toxicity could lead to infertility. Thus, finding safe and clinically applicable protective agents against this complication is important. It has been found that oxidative stress plays a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of Pb-induced reprotoxicity. Glycine is the simplest amino acid with a wide range of pharmacological activities. It has been found that glycine could attenuate oxidative stress and mitochondrial impairment in various experimental models. The current study was designed to evaluate the role of glycine in Pb-induced reproductive toxicity in male mice. Male BALB/c mice received Pb (20 mg/kg/day; gavage; 35 consecutive days) and treated with glycine (250 and 500 mg/kg/day; gavage; 35 consecutive days). Then, reproductive system weight indices, biomarkers of oxidative stress in the testis and isolated sperm, sperm kinetic, sperm mitochondrial indices, and testis histopathological alterations were monitored. A significant change in testis, epididymis, and Vas deferens weight was evident in Pb-treated animals. Markers of oxidative stress were also significantly increased in the testis and isolated sperm of the Pb-treated group. A significant disruption in sperm kinetic was also evident when mice received Pb. Moreover, Pb exposure caused significant deterioration in sperm mitochondrial indices. Tubular injury, tubular desquamation, and decreased spermatogenic index were histopathological alterations detected in Pb-treated mice. It was found that glycine significantly blunted oxidative stress markers in testis and sperm, improved sperm mitochondrial parameters, causing considerable higher velocity-related indices (VSL, VCL, and VAP) and percentages of progressively motile sperm, and decreased testis histopathological changes in Pb-exposed animals. These data suggest glycine as a potential protective agent against Pb-induced reproductive toxicity. The effects of glycine on oxidative stress markers and mitochondrial function play a key role in its protective mechanism.

The consequence and mechanism of dietary flavonoids on androgen profiles and disorders amelioration

Androgen is a kind of steroid hormone that plays a vital role in reproductive system and homeostasis of the body. Disrupted androgen balance serves as the causal contributor to a series of physiological disorders and even diseases. Flavonoids, as an extremely frequent family of natural polyphenols, exist widely in plants and foods and have received great attention when considering their inevitable consumption and estrogen-like effects. Mounting evidence illustrates that flavonoids have a propensity to interfere with androgen synthesis and metabolism, and also have a designated improvement effect on androgen disorders. Therefore, flavonoids were divided into six subclasses based on the structural feature in this paper, and the literature about their effects on androgens published in the past ten years was summarized. It could be concluded that flavonoids have the potential to regulate androgen levels and biological effects, mainly by interfering with the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, androgen synthesis and metabolism, androgen binding with its receptors and membrane receptors, and antioxidant effects. The faced challenges about androgen regulation by flavonoids masterly include target mechanism exploration, individual heterogeneity, food matrixes interaction, and lack of clinical study. This review also provides a scientific basis for nutritional intervention using flavonoids to improve androgen disorder symptoms.

Cyanidin-3-o-glucoside (C3G) inhibits vascular leakage regulated by microglial activation in early diabetic retinopathy and neovascularization in advanced diabetic retinopathy

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) is a kind of anthocyanin which shows strong anti-inflammation, anti-tumor and anti-oxidant properties. This paper was designed to explore the potential effects of C3G on diabetic retinopathy (DR). C57BL/6 mice were administrated with streptozotocin (STZ) or vehicle control for the establishment of diabetic models. To simulate hyperglycemia and hypoxia, D-glucose (30 mM) and CoCl₂ (200 μm/l) were utilized to treat HRECs, respectively. The migration, invasion, inflammation and tube formation abilities of cells were evaluated with the adoption of wound healing, transwell, ELISA and tube formation assays, respectively. Besides, immunofluorescence staining was utilized to detect proliferation and retinal vessels. Evans blue permeation assay were performed to evaluate the vascular leakage in DR mice. Moreover, western blot and qPCR were used to quantify the mRNA and protein expressions of ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule (Iba)-1 and tight junction proteins. Results showed that C3G alleviated the inflammation, microglial activation and angiogenesis in DR mice. Moreover, the proliferation and inflammation of BV2 cells induced by high glucose (HG) were suppressed by C3G. Evans blue permeation assay demonstrated the potency of C3G in attenuating vascular leakage. In addition, C3G suppressed the migration, invasion and angiogenesis of human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs) DR model in vitro.By confirming the role of C3G in inhibiting vascular leakage regulated by microglia activation in early DR and angiogenesis in advanced DR, this study pointed out the potential of C3G as a therapeutic drug for DR management.

Isorhamnetin Promotes Estrogen Biosynthesis and Proliferation in Porcine Granulosa Cells via the PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway

Isorhamnetin is a natural flavonoid widely distributed in fruits and vegetables. However, the roles of isorhamnetin involved in steroidogenesis, proliferation, and apoptosis in ovarian granulosa cells (GCs) are poorly understood. We found that isorhamnetin promoted the secretion of estrogen and inhibited the secretion of progesterone and testosterone by modulating steroidogenesis-associated proteins and mRNA such as CYP19A1, StAR, and 3β-HSD in ovarian GCs. Mechanistically, isorhamnetin stimulated the expression of the proliferating cell nuclear antigen and C-myc and promoted the proliferation of GCs via the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Furthermore, isorhamnetin increased the protein expression of CyclinB, CyclinD, CyclinE, and CyclinA, thereby raising the ratio of S-phase cells in response to GC proliferation. Changes in the expression of apoptosis-associated proteins (Bcl2, Bax, and cytochrome c) and intracellular reactive oxygen species levels showed that isorhamnetin inhibited GC apoptosis. Collectively, these findings indicate that isorhamnetin regulates steroidogenesis through the activation of PI3K/Akt, which promotes proliferation, inhibits apoptosis, and alleviates oxidative stress.

Environmental Factors-Induced Oxidative Stress: Hormonal and Molecular Pathway Disruptions in Hypogonadism and Erectile Dysfunction

Hypogonadism is an endocrine disorder characterized by inadequate serum testosterone production by the Leydig cells of the testis. It is triggered by alterations in the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis. Erectile dysfunction (ED) is another common disorder in men that involves an alteration in erectile response–organic, relational, or psychological. The incidence of hypogonadism and ED is common in men aged over 40 years. Hypogonadism (including late-onset hypogonadism) and ED may be linked to several environmental factors-induced oxidative stresses. The factors mainly include exposure to pesticides, radiation, air pollution, heavy metals and other endocrine-disrupting chemicals. These environmental risk factors may induce oxidative stress and lead to hormonal dysfunctions. To better understand the subject, the study used many keywords, including “hypogonadism”, “late-onset hypogonadism”, “testosterone”, “erectile dysfunction”, “reactive oxygen species”, “oxidative stress”, and “environmental pollution” in major online databases, such as SCOPUS and PUBMED to extract relevant scientific information. Based on these parameters, this review summarizes a comprehensive insight into the important environmental issues that may have a direct or indirect association with hypogonadism and ED in men. The study concludes that environmental factors-induced oxidative stress may cause infertility in men. The hypothesis and outcomes were reviewed critically, and the mechanistic approaches are applied through oxidant-sensitive pathways. This study also provides reccomendations on future therapeutic interventions and protective measures against such adverse environmental factors-induced hypogonadism and ED.

Low dose of fire retardant, 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE47), stimulates the proliferation and differentiation of progenitor Leydig cells of male rats during prepuberty

2,2',4,4'-Tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE47), a flame retardant, is extensively distributed in the food chain. However, whether BDE47 affects Leydig cell development during prepuberty remains unclear. BDE47 was daily gavaged to 21-day-old Sprague-Dawley male rats with 0 (corn oil), 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4 mg/kg for 14 days. BDE47 did not affect the body weight or testis weight of rats. It significantly increased serum testosterone level at 0.4 mg/kg, but decreased luteinizing hormone (LH) level without affecting estradiol level. BDE47 induced Leydig cell hyperplasia (the number of CYP11A1-positive Leydig cells increased), and up-regulated the expression of Scarb1, Star, Hsd11b1, Pcna, and Ccnd1 in the testis. BDE47 significantly reduced p53 and p21 levels but increased CCND1 level. It also markedly increased the phosphorylation of AKT1, AKT2, ERK1/2, and CREB. BDE47 significantly up-regulated the expression of Scarb1, Star, and Hsd11b1 and stimulated androgen production by immature Leydig cells from rats under basal, LH, and 8Br-cAMP stimulated conditions at 100 nM in vitro. In conclusion, BDE47 increased Leydig cell number and up-regulated the expression of Scarb1 and Star, thereby leading to increased testosterone synthesis.

Mitochondrion: a sensitive target for Pb exposure

Pb exposure is a worldwide environmental contamination issue which has been of concern to more and more people. Exposure to environmental Pb and its compounds through food and respiratory routes causes toxic damage to the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular and nervous systems, etc. Children and pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to Pb. Pb exposure significantly destroys children's learning ability, intelligence and perception ability. Mitochondria are involved in various life processes of eukaryotes and are one of the most sensitive organelles to various injuries. There is no doubt that Pb-induced mitochondrial damage can widely affect various physiological processes and cause great harm. In this review, we summarized the toxic effects of Pb on mitochondria which led to various pathological processes. Pb induces mitochondrial dysfunction leading to the increased level of oxidative stress. In addition, Pb leads to cell apoptosis via mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) opening. Also, Pb can stimulate the development of mitochondria-mediated inflammatory responses. Furthermore, Pb triggers the germination of autophagy via the mitochondrial pathway and induces mitochondrial dysfunction, disturbing intracellular calcium homeostasis. In a word, we discussed the effects of Pb exposure on mitochondria, hoping to provide some references for further research and better therapeutic options for Pb exposure.

Progesterone Receptor Membrane Components: Key Regulators of Fetal Membrane Integrity†

Pro-pregnancy hormone progesterone (P4) helps to maintain a quiescent status of uterine tissues during gestation. However, P4's functional role in maintaining fetal membrane (amniochorion) integrity remains unclear. P4 functions through its membrane receptors (PGRMCs) as fetal membrane cells lack nuclear receptors. This study screened the differential expression of PGRMCs in the fetal membranes and tested P4-PGRMC interactions under normal and oxidative stress (OS) conditions expected that can disrupt P4-PGRMC interactions impacting fetal membrane stability resulting in parturition. Human fetal membranes were collected from term and preterm deliveries (N = 5). Immunohistochemistry and western blot localized and determined differential expression of P4 receptors. Primary amnion epithelial (AEC), mesenchymal (AMCs), and chorion cell were treated with P4 alone or cotreat (P4 + OS induced by cigarette smoke extract [CSE]). Proximity ligation assay (PLA) documented P4-receptor binding, while P4 ELISA documented culture supernatant levels. Immunohistology confirmed lack of nuclear PRs; however, confirmed expressions of PGRMC 1 and 2. Term labor (P = 0.01) and preterm rupture (P = 0.01) are associated with significant downregulation of PGRMC2. OS induced differential downregulation of PGRMCs in both amnion and chorion cells (all P < 0.05) and downregulates P4 release (AMCs; P = 0.01). The PLA showed preferential receptor-ligand binding in amnion and chorion cells. Co-treatment of P4 + CSE did not reverse CSE-induced effects. In conclusion, P4-PGRMCs interaction maintains fetal membranes' functional integrity throughout pregnancy. Increased OS reduces endogenous P4 production and cell type-dependent downregulation of PGRMCs. These changes can lead to fetal membrane-specific 'functional progesterone withdrawal', contributing to the dysfunctional fetal membrane status seen at term and preterm conditions.

Protective effect of betaine against lead-induced testicular toxicity in male mice

Lead (Pb) is an environmental toxicant reported to impair male reproductive system. Betaine is a natural product which has promising beneficial effects against oxidative stress. In this experimental study, we evaluated the ameliorative effect of betaine on sperm quality and oxidative stress induced by lead (Pb) in the testis of adult male mice. Sixty male Kunming mice were divided equally into four groups: control group, betaine group (1% in drinking water), lead group (100 mg kg^-1  bw^-1  day^-1 ) and betaine + lead group. In the last group, mice were supplemented with betaine for two weeks prior to the initiation of lead treatment and concurrently during lead treatment for 3 weeks until sacrificed. Our results indicated that in the lead-administrated group, body weights together with sperm count were significantly decreased (p < .05). The numbers of abnormal sperms were found to be higher in lead-treated mice. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (Cat) were significantly reduced, while the level of malondialdehyde (MDA) content was increased in the testis tissue following lead treatment. The mRNA levels of antioxidant-related genes (SOD1, GPX1 and CAT) were significantly decreased in the lead group. Betaine enhanced these parameters in betaine + lead group. In testis histology span, Johnson score was decreased (p < .05) in lead group and co-treatment with betaine increased Johnson score significantly in betaine + lead group. These results indicate that betaine improves sperm quality and ameliorate oxidative damage in testis of mice exposed to lead.

Improvement of Testicular Steroidogenesis Using Flavonoids and Isoflavonoids for Prevention of Late-Onset Male Hypogonadism

Androgen production, being important for male fertility, is mainly accomplished by the Leydig cells from the interstitial compartment of the testis. Testosterone plays a critical role in testis development, normal masculinization, and the maintenance of spermatogenesis. Within seminiferous tubules, appropriate Sertoli cell function is highly dependent on testicular androgen levels and is essential to initiate and maintain spermatogenesis. During aging, testosterone production by the testicular Leydig cells declines from the 30s in humans at a rate of 1% per year. This review outlines the recent findings regarding the use of flavonoids and isoflavonoids to improve testosterone production, contributing to normal spermatogenesis and preventing age-related degenerative diseases associated with testosterone deficiency. With the cumulation of information on the actions of different flavonoids and isoflavonoids on steroidogenesis in Leydig cells, we can now draw conclusions regarding the structure-activity relationship on androgen production. Indeed, flavonoids having a 5,7-dihydroxychromen-4-one backbone tend to increase the expression of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), being critical for the entry of cholesterol into the mitochondria, leading to increased testosterone production from testis Leydig cells. Therefore, flavonoids and isoflavonoids such as chrysin, apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, and daidzein may be effective in delaying the initiation of late-onset hypogonadism associated with aging in males.

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside protects against cadmium-induced dysfunction of sex hormone secretion via the regulation of hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis in male pubertal mice

Cadmium (Cd) has been generally recognized as an endocrine-disrupting chemical for its toxic effects on the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis accompanied by dysfunction in sex hormone secretion. Particularly, exposure to Cd during puberty versus post-puberty exhibits differing age-dependent effects that require further examination. This study sought to determine if cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G), a typical anthocyanin with neuroprotective bioactivity, could protect against Cd-induced sex hormone-disorder in Pubertal male mice. C3G treatment reversed the disruption of hormone levels and increased Gnrh1 gene expression in the hypothalamus. In addition, the levels of gonadotropins, including luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), were reversed by C3G. Interestingly, C3G improved the expression of LH and FSH receptor in the testis in mice exposed to Cd. Furthermore, C3G activated the signaling pathway related to the synthesis of testosterone processing. In conclusion, C3G protected against Cd-induced dysfunction of sex hormone secretion through the regulation of the HPG axis in male mice during puberty. The results of this study suggest that consumption of anthocyanins can be protective against metal-induced male reproductive dysfunction.

Corticosterone rather than ethanol epigenetic programmed testicular dysplasia caused by prenatal ethanol exposure in male offspring rats

Prenatal ethanol exposure (PEE) could affect offspring's testicular development. This study aimed to illuminate its intrauterine origin and the programming mechanism caused by PEE. Pregnant Wistar rats were given ethanol (4 g/kg.d) by gavage administration during gestational days (GD) 9-20. Serum samples and testes of male offspring rats were collected on GD20, postnatal week (PW) 6, and PW12. We found that PEE induced testicular morphological abnormality, low serum testosterone levels, expressive suppression of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD), and low acetylation levels of histone 3 lysine 14 (H3K14ac) of 3β-HSD before and after birth. In utero, when fetal rats were overexposed to corticosterone by PEE, the expression levels of testicular glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) were increased, while that of steroidogenic factor 1 (SF1) was decreased. In vitro, corticosterone (rather than ethanol) at 500 to 2,000 nM concentration decreased testosterone production and 3β-HSD expression in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, corticosterone downregulated SF1 and upregulated HDAC2 via activating GR, accompanied by a low H3K14ac level of 3β-HSD; SF1 overexpression could reverse the increased HDAC2 expression, and knockdown of HDAC2 could partially reverse the inhibitory effects of corticosterone on H3K14ac level and 3β-HSD expression but not on SF1 expression. Taken together, PEE caused testicular dysplasia in male offspring rats, which was associated with corticosterone-induced low-functional programming of 3β-HSD through the GR/SF1/HDAC2/H3K14ac pathway. This study provides new academic perspectives to illuminate the theory of 'Developmental Origins of Health and Disease.'

Cyanidin-3- O-glucoside at Low Doses Protected against 3-Chloro-1,2-propanediol Induced Testis Injury and Improved Spermatogenesis in Male Rats

In recent decades, the capability of mankind spermatogenesis is declining due to various threats. Anthocyanins as colorful polyphenols possess beneficial functions for the organisms, including Leydig cells, but their effects on male spermatogenesis remain underexplored. In our study, the protective effect of cyanidin-3- O-glucoside (C3G) was investigated on the 3-chloro-1,2-propanediol (3-MCPD) caused rat spermatogenic disorders. At low doses, C3G improved the number and motility of the sperms, alleviating the seminiferous tubule injury. Interestingly, C3G showed no influence on sexual hormone but increased the androgen receptor expression. Meanwhile, C3G reduced the oxidative stress and number of apoptotic cells and promoted the integrity of the blood-testis barrier in the testis. Additionally, C3G mediated the activation of p-ERK, p-JNK, and p53, which are related to the protection of Sertoli cells and spermatogenesis. In conclusion, C3G protected against the 3-MCPD caused testis damage and spermatogenic disorders under appropriate doses, which indicates the potential protection of anthocyanins on male reproduction.

4-Bromodiphenyl ether delays pubertal Leydig cell development in rats

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers are a class of brominated flame retardants that are potential endocrine disruptors. 4-Bromodiphenyl ether (BDE-3) is the most abundant photodegradation product of higher polybrominated diphenyl ethers. However, whether BDE-3 affects Leydig cell development during puberty is still unknown. The objective of this study was to explore effects of BDE-3 on the pubertal development of rat Leydig cells. Male Sprague Dawley rats (35 days of age) were gavaged daily with BDE-3 (0, 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight/day) for 21 days. BDE-3 decreased serum testosterone levels (1.099 ± 0.412 ng/ml at a dose of 200 mg/kg BDE-3 when compared to the control level (2.402 ± 0.184 ng/ml, mean ± S.E.). BDE-3 decreased Leydig cell size and cytoplasmic size at a dose of 200 mg/kg, decreased Lhcgr, Star, Dhh, and Sox9 mRNA levels at ≥ 100 mg/kg and Scarb1, Cyp11a1, Hsd17b3, and Fshr at 200 mg/kg. BED-3 also decreased the phosphorylation of AKT1, AKT2, ERK1/2, and AMPK at 100 or 200 mg/kg. BDE-3 in vitro induced ROS generation, inhibited androgen production, down-regulated Lhcgr, Scarb1, Star, Cyp11a1, Hsd3b1, Srd5a1, and Akr1c14 expression in immature Leydig cells after 24-h treatment. In conclusion, the current study indicates that BDE-3 disrupts Leydig cell development via suppressing AKT, ERK1/2, and AMPK phosphorylation and inducing ROS generation.

Targeting of the respiratory chain by toxicants: beyond the toxicities to mitochondrial morphology

The mitochondrion is an important subcellular target of environmental toxicants. With environmental stress, a series of toxic effects on mitochondria are induced, which originate from the dynamic changes of mitochondrial fusion and fission, structure/membrane damage, and respiratory chain dysfunction. The toxic effects of various toxicants on mitochondrial morphology and intact membranes, and their determination of cell fate, have already been broadly studied and reported on. However, their effects on the integrity and function of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (RC) remain incompletely understood. Recently, Fan et al. and Yu et al. approached this topic by closely examining the mitochondrial toxicities, including the effect on the respiratory chain, induced by organic arsenical chemical 2-methoxy-4-(((4-(oxoarsanyl)phenyl)imino)methyl)phenol and thiourea gold(i) complexes (AuTuCl). Obviously, toxicant-induced dysfunction of the respiratory chain can hinder ATP production, and may elevate ROS generation. The increased ROS can further damage mtDNA, and consequently leads to inactivation of some RC protein-encoding mtDNA, generating a vicious circle of amplifying mitochondrial damage. We hope that these studies focused on RC structure and activity will broaden our view of mitochondrial toxicology and draw forth more profound mechanistic studies on the respiratory chain toxicity of environmental toxicants and their application in risk assessment.

Nanoencapsulation of Cyanidin-3- O-glucoside Enhances Protection Against UVB-Induced Epidermal Damage through Regulation of p53-Mediated Apoptosis in Mice

Excess ultraviolet (UV) radiation causes numerous forms of skin damage. The aim of the present study was to assess and compare the photoprotective effects of cyanidin-3- O-glucoside (C3G) alone and encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles (Nano-C3G) in a UVB-induced acute photodamage mouse model. Nano-C3G was developed from chitosan and sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) by ionic gelation. The particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, drug loading, and in vitro release in 6 days were determined. Kunming (KM) mice were treated with Nano-C3G (125, 250, 500 μM) or C3G (500 μM) after part of the dorsal skin area was dehaired and then exposed to 2 J/cm² of UVB. The nanocapsules were successfully produced and had a uniform and complete spherical shape without agglomeration. The size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and drug loading of Nano-C3G was 288 nm, +30 mV, 44.90%, and 4.30%, respectively. C3G in the nanocapsules was released quite rapidly, and the release rate slowed down at higher pH. The animal experiment demonstrated that Nano-C3G could effectively reduce the UVB-induced lipid peroxidation, malondialdehyde, and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine contents; downregulate p53, Bcl-2-associated X (Bax), and caspase-3 and -9 expression; and balance the B-cell lymphoma-2/leukemia-2 ratio. Moreover, Nano-C3G (125, 250, 500 μM) improved the visual appearance, skin moisture, histologic appearance, and apoptotic index (based on TUNEL staining) under UVB exposure. In conclusion, these results suggest that Nano-C3G can reduce UVB-induced epidermal damage through the p53-mediated apoptosis signaling pathway. Moreover, Nano-C3G was more efficient than C3G at the same concentration (500 μM).