CDK2 and Bcl-xL inhibitory mechanisms by docking simulations and anti-tumor activity from piperine enriched supercritical extract

Piperine: an emerging biofactor with anticancer efficacy and therapeutic potential

Anticancer drug discovery needs serious attention to overcome the high mortality rate caused by cancer. There are still many obstacles to treating this disease, such as the high cost of chemotherapeutic drugs, the resulting side effects from the drug, and the occurrence of multidrug resistance. Herbaceous plants are a reservoir of natural compounds that can be anticancer drugs with novel mechanisms of action. Piperine, a bioactive compound derived from Piper species, is gaining attention due to its unique dual role in directly inhibiting tumor growth and enhancing the bioavailability of chemotherapeutic drugs. Unlike conventional treatments, Piperine exhibits a novel mechanism of action by modulating multiple signaling pathways, including apoptosis and autophagy, with low toxicity. Additionally, Piperine acts as a bioenhancer by improving the absorption and effectiveness of other anticancer agents, reducing the required dosage, and minimizing side effects. Therefore, this review aims to visualize a summary of Piperine sources, phytochemistry, chemical structure-anticancer activity relationship, anticancer activities of semi-synthetic derivatives, pharmacokinetic and bioavailability, in vitro and in vivo preclinical studies, mechanism of antitumor action, human clinical trials, toxicity, side effects, and safety of Piperine. References were collected from the Pubmed/MedLine database (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) with the following keywords: "Piperine anticancer," "Piperine derivatives," "Piperine antitumor mechanism" and "Piperine pharmacokinetic and bioavailability," after filter process by inclusion and exclusion criteria, 101 were selected from 444 articles. From 2013 to 2023, there were numerous studies regarding preclinical studies of Piperine of various cell lines, including breast cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, melanoma, cervical cancer, gastric cancer, osteosarcoma, colon cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, ovarian cancer, leukemia, colorectal cancer, and hypopharyngeal carcinoma. In vivo, the anticancer study has also been conducted on some animal models, such as Ehrlich carcinoma-bearing mice, Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells-bearing Balbc mice, hepatocellular carcinoma-bearing Wistar rat, A375SM cells-bearing mice, A375P cells-bearing mice, SNU-16 cells-bearing BalbC mice, and HGC-27-bearing baby mice. Treatment with this compound leads to cell proliferation inhibition and induction of apoptosis. Piperine has been used for clinical trials of diseases, but no cancer patient report exists. Various semi-synthetic derivatives of Piperine show efficacy as an anticancer drug across multiple cell lines. Piperine shows promise for use in cancer clinical trials, either as a standalone treatment or as a bioenhancer. Its bioenhancer properties may enhance the efficacy of existing chemotherapeutic agents, providing a valuable foundation for developing new anticancer therapies.

Limosomes versus hyalurolimosomes loaded with piperine for management of skin cancer

Skin cancer is considered the fifth most commonly occurring cancer worldwide hampering both health and economy. Piperine had proven efficacy in fighting skin cancer cells. Unfortunately, this natural agent had limited ability to penetrate the skin. The aim of the current study was to formulate piperine-loaded limosomes and hyalurolimosomes incorporating limonene as an edge activator and hyaluronic acid as bioactive gelling agent for managing skin cancer. Titration method followed by homogenization was adopted to prepare the nanoliposomal formulations. Characterization involved size, & zeta potential measurements, examination using transmission electron microscope (TEM) and stability study. Biological evaluation of the antitumor activity of piperine nanoliposomal formulations against Ehrlich's (EAC) solid tumor was also performed. Drug loaded limosomes and hyalurolimosomes had particle size; 346.55 ± 8.55 & 372.70 ± 10.83 nm, respectively. Zeta potential was high enough to ensure their stability. TEM micrographs detected the surrounding layer of Hyaluronic acid formed around the spherical limosomal nano-carrier ensuring the formation of Hyalurolimosomes. All stored formulations showed non-significant differences compared with freshly prepared ones at p < 0.05. In addition, A DAD-HPLC method was developed and validated for Piperine analysis in the skin. Upon application of this method, it was found that hyalurolimosomes deliver double the concentration delivered by limosomes. The piperine hyalurolimosome group showed a significant reduction in tumor size with a smaller AUC compared to piperine gel, which was confirmed by in vivo studies. Consequently, hyalurolimosomes loaded with piperine is considered a promising nanocarrier system and a step forward better management of skin cancer introducing new hope in beating this deadly disease.

Anti-leishmanial, immunomodulatory and additive potential effect of Piperine on Leishmania major: The in silico and in vitro study of Piperine and its combination

BACKGROUND

Piperine (Pn), an indole alkaloid compound found in pepper, is an effective compound with anti-leishmanial medications that administered alone or in combination. This study aimed to use Pn for possible biochemical targets and to assess mechanisms of anti-leishmanial action and immunomodulatory roles.

METHODS

The ability of Pn to bind to interleukin-12P40 (IL-12P40) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) was investigated using molecular docking. The leishmanicidal effect of Pn, meglumine antimoniate (Glucantime®; MA), and Pn plus MA was assessed on Leishmania major promastigotes and amastigotes. A real-time PCR was applied to quantify cytokines gene expression in drug-treated murine macrophages.

RESULTS

The molecular docking findings indicated that Pn could bind to IL-12P40/IFN-γ. In silico analyses showed an affinity of Pn to IL-12P40/IFN-γ, with the MolDock score of -236.91 and -64.87 kcal/mol, respectively. Pn plus MA reduced the proliferation rate of promastigote and amastigote forms of L. major compared to each drug alone (IC50 = 43.22 and 19.41 μg/mL, respectively). Moreover, the combination drug demonstrated no cytotoxicity as the selectivity index (SI) was 14.81. Also, Th1-related cytokines were upregulated, while Th2-related cytokines were downregulated in Pn combination-treated murine macrophages.

CONCLUSIONS

The superior effectiveness of combination therapy on L. major warrants further investigations on the clinical potential of this combination in the treatment of leishmaniasis.

Piperine-Chlorogenic Acid Hybrid Inhibits the Proliferation of the SK-MEL-147 Melanoma Cells by Modulating Mitotic Kinases

Melanoma is considered the most aggressive form of skin cancer, showing high metastatic potential and persistent high mortality rates despite the introduction of immunotherapy and targeted therapies. Thus, it is important to identify new drug candidates for melanoma. The design of hybrid molecules, with different pharmacophore fragments combined in the same scaffold, is an interesting strategy for obtaining new multi-target and more effective anticancer drugs. We designed nine hybrid compounds bearing piperine and chlorogenic acid pharmacophoric groups and evaluated their antitumoral potential on melanoma cells with distinct mutational profiles SK-MEL-147, CHL-1 and WM1366. We identified the compound named PQM-277 (3a) to be the most cytotoxic one, inhibiting mitosis progression and promoting an accumulation of cells in pro-metaphase and metaphase by altering the expression of genes that govern G2/M transition and mitosis onset. Compound 3a downregulated FOXM1, CCNB1, CDK1, AURKA, AURKB, and PLK1, and upregulated CDKN1A. Molecular docking showed that 3a could interact with the CUL1-RBX1 complex, which activity is necessary to trigger molecular events essential for FOXM1 transactivation and, in turn, G2/M gene expression. In addition, compound 3a effectively induced apoptosis by increasing BAX/BCL2 ratio. Our findings demonstrate that 3a is an important antitumor candidate prototype and support further investigations to evaluate its potential for melanoma treatment, especially for refractory cases to BRAF/MEK inhibitors.

Molecular and pharmacological aspects of piperine as a potential molecule for disease prevention and management: evidence from clinical trials

BACKGROUND

Piperine is a type of amide alkaloid that exhibits pleiotropic properties like antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective and enhancing bioavailability and fertility-related activities. Piperine has the ability to alter gastrointestinal disorders, drug-metabolizing enzymes, and bioavailability of several drugs. The present review explores the available clinical and preclinical data, nanoformulations, extraction process, structure-activity relationships, molecular docking, bioavailability enhancement of phytochemicals and drugs, and brain penetration properties of piperine in the prevention, management, and treatment of various diseases and disorders.

MAIN BODY

Piperine provides therapeutic benefits in patients suffering from diabetes, obesity, arthritis, oral cancer, breast cancer, multiple myeloma, metabolic syndrome, hypertension, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, cerebral stroke, cardiovascular diseases, kidney diseases, inflammatory diseases, and rhinopharyngitis. The molecular basis for the pleiotropic activities of piperine is based on its ability to regulate multiple signaling molecules such as cell cycle proteins, anti-apoptotic proteins, P-glycoprotein, cytochrome P450 3A4, multidrug resistance protein 1, breast cancer resistance protein, transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 proinflammatory cytokine, nuclear factor-κB, c-Fos, cAMP response element-binding protein, activation transcription factor-2, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma, Human G-quadruplex DNA, Cyclooxygenase-2, Nitric oxide synthases-2, MicroRNA, and coronaviruses. Piperine also regulates multiple signaling pathways such as Akt/mTOR/MMP-9, 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase-activated NLR family pyrin domain containing-3 inflammasome, voltage-gated K+ current, PKCα/ERK1/2, NF-κB/AP-1/MMP-9, Wnt/β-catenin, JNK/P38 MAPK, and gut microbiota.

SHORT CONCLUSION

Based on the current evidence, piperine can be the potential molecule for treatment of disease, and its significance of this molecule in the clinic is discussed.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Piperine for treating breast cancer: A review of molecular mechanisms, combination with anticancer drugs, and nanosystems

Piperine (PIP) is an alkaloid found primarily in Piper longum, and this natural compound has been shown to exert effects on proliferation and survival against various types of cancer. In particular, PIP has potent inhibitory effects on breast cancer (BC), the most prevalent type of cancer in women worldwide. PIP targets numerous signaling pathways associated with the therapy of BC cells through the following mechanisms: (a) induction of arrest of the cell cycle and apoptosis; (b) alteration of the signaling protein expression; (c) reduction in transcription factors; and (d) inhibition of tumor growth. BC cells have the ability to resist conventional drugs, so one of the strategies is the combination of PIP with other phytochemicals such as paclitaxel, thymoquinone, hesperidin, bee venom, tamoxifen, mitoxantrone, piperlongumin, and curcumin. Nanotechnology-based drug encapsulation systems are currently used to enhance the release of PIP. This includes polymer nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and liposomes. In the present review, the chemistry and bioavailability of PIP, its molecular targets in BC, and nanotechnological strategies are discussed. Future research directions are also discussed to further understand this promising natural product.

Plant-Based Antioxidant Extracts and Compounds in the Management of Oral Cancer

Oral cancer continues to be a leading cause of death worldwide, and its prevalence is particularly high in developing countries, where people chew tobacco and betel nut on a regular basis. Radiation-, chemo-, targeted-, immuno-, and hormone-based therapies along with surgery are commonly used as part of a treatment plan. However, these treatments frequently result in various unwanted short- to long-term side effects. As a result, there is an urgent need to develop treatment options for oral cancer that have little or no adverse effects. Numerous bioactive compounds derived from various plants have recently attracted attention as therapeutic options for cancer treatment. Antioxidants found in medicinal plants, such as vitamins E, C, and A, reduce damage to the mucosa by neutralizing free radicals found in various oral mucosal lesions. Phytochemicals found in medicinal plants have the potential to modulate cellular signalling pathways that alter the cellular defence mechanisms to protect normal cells from reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induce apoptosis in cancer cells. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of various medicinal plants and phytoconstituents that have shown the potential to be used as oral cancer therapeutics.

Accelerated Solvent Extraction and Pulsed Electric Fields for Valorization of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Sole (Dover sole) By-Products: Protein Content, Molecular Weight Distribution and Antioxidant Potential of the Extracts

Fishery by-products are rich in biologically active substances and the use of green and efficient extraction methods to recover these high-added-value compounds is of particular importance. In this study, head, skin and viscera of rainbow trout and sole were used as the target matrices and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) (45–55 °C, 15 min, pH 5.2–6.8, 103.4 bars) and pulsed electric fields (PEF) (1–3 kV/cm, 123–300 kJ/kg, 15–24 h) were applied as extraction technologies. The results showed that ASE and PEF significantly increased the protein extract efficiency of the fish by-products (p < 0.05) by up to 80%. SDS-PAGE results showed that ASE and PEF treatments changed the molecular size distribution of the protein in the extracts, which was specifically expressed as the change in the area or number of bands between 5 and 250 kDa. The antioxidant capacity of the extracts was evaluated by oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and total antioxidant capacity (ABTS) assays. The results showed that both ASE and PEF treatments significantly increased the antioxidant capacity of rainbow trout and sole skin and head extracts (p < 0.05). ASE and PEF extraction processes can be used as new technologies to extract high-added-value compounds from fish by-products.

Overview of the Anticancer Potential of the "King of Spices" Piper nigrum and Its Main Constituent Piperine

The main limits of current anticancer therapy are relapses, chemoresistance, and toxic effects resulting from its poor selectivity towards cancer cells that severely impair a patient's quality of life. Therefore, the discovery of new anticancer drugs remains an urgent challenge. Natural products represent an excellent opportunity due to their ability to target heterogenous populations of cancer cells and regulate several key pathways involved in cancer development, and their favorable toxicological profile. Piper nigrum is one of the most popular spices in the world, with growing fame as a source of bioactive molecules with pharmacological properties. The present review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the anticancer potential of Piper nigrum and its major active constituents-not limited to the well-known piperine-whose undeniable anticancer properties have been reported for different cancer cell lines and animal models. Moreover, the chemosensitizing effects of Piper nigrum in association with traditional anticancer drugs are depicted and its toxicological profile is outlined. Despite the promising results, human studies are missing, which are crucial for supporting the efficacy and safety of Piper nigrum and its single components in cancer patients.

Molecular Docking Study of Naturally Derived Flavonoids with Antiapoptotic BCL-2 and BCL-XL Proteins toward Ovarian Cancer Treatment

The naturally derived flavonoids are well known to have anticarcinogenic effects. Flavonoids could be an alternative strategy for ovarian cancer treatment, due to existing platinum-based drugs are reported to develop resistance with low survival rates. Inhibition of antiapoptotic proteins, namely B-cell lymphoma (Bcl-2) and B-cell lymphoma-extra large (Bcl-xl), is the key target to stimulate apoptosis process in cancer cells. This study aimed to determine the binding interaction of five naturally derived flavonoids (biochanin A, myricetin, apigenin, galangin, and fisetin) with potential antiapoptotic target proteins (Bcl-2 and Bcl-xl). The molecular docking study was conducted using AutoDock Vina program. The binding affinity and the presence of hydrogen bonds between the flavonoids and target proteins were predicted. Our findings showed that all the flavonoids showed better binding affinity with Bcl-xl than that of Bcl-2 proteins. The highest binding affinity was recorded in fisetin-Bcl-xl protein complex (-8.8 kcal/mol). Meanwhile, the other flavonoids docked with Bcl-xl protein showed binding affinities, ranging from -8.0 to -8.6 kcal/mol. A total of four hydrogen bonds, four hydrophobic contacts, and one electrostatic interaction were detected in the docked fisetin-Bcl-xl complex, explaining its high binding affinity with Bcl-xl. The present results indicate that all flavonoids could potentially serve as Bcl-xl protein inhibitors, which would consequently lead to apoptotic process in ovarian cancers.

Core-Shell Biopolymer Nanoparticles for Co-Delivery of Curcumin and Piperine: Sequential Electrostatic Deposition of Hyaluronic Acid and Chitosan Shells on the Zein Core

Curcumin and piperine are natural nutraceuticals that exhibit synergistic biological activities, but have different polarities, which can make their encapsulation within a single delivery system challenging. In this study, the two bioactive components were encapsulated within core-shell nanoparticles formed by a combination of antisolvent precipitation and layer-by-layer deposition. Initially, strongly hydrophobic curcumin (log P = 4.12) was embedded in the hydrophobic core of zein-hyaluronic acid nanoparticles using the antisolvent precipitation method. Then, the weakly hydrophobic piperine (log P = 2.78) was adsorbed to the outer biopolymer shell of these nanoparticles. Finally, the nutraceutical-loaded particles were coated with a layer of chitosan by the electrostatic deposition method. The surface charge and coating thickness depended on the number of adsorbed layers and the nature of the outer layer, being negative for hyaluronic acid and positive for chitosan. Low-, medium-, and high-molecular weight chitosan were utilized to modify the surface properties. Chitosan with a low-molecular weight was selected to fabricate the core-shell nanoparticles because it produced small highly charged cationic particles (d = 599 nm; ζ = +38.1 mV). The encapsulation efficiency and loading capacities were 90.4 and 5.7% for curcumin, and 86.4 and 5.4% for piperine, respectively. The core-shell nanoparticles protected the nutraceuticals from chemical degradation during light exposure, thermal processing, and storage for 2 months. Moreover, the nanoparticles were able to control the release of the bioactive components in simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Our results should facilitate the development of more effective nanodelivery systems for nutraceuticals that exhibit synergistic activities, but have different molecular characteristics.