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Ibrahiem AA, Al Dawsari MM, Almeaqli RE, Keshk AA, Ali NA, Habil H. Parents' Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices toward Methamphetamine Abuse among Youth and its Risk Factors in Saudi Arabia. JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND BIOALLIED SCIENCES 2024; 16:S753-S756. [PMID: 38595546 PMCID: PMC11000875 DOI: 10.4103/jpbs.jpbs_996_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective The present study aimed to conduct an assessment of parents' knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward methamphetamine "shabu" abuse among youth and its risk factors. Materials and Methods The present cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted on a sample of 1179 parents. Parents were assured that questionnaire content would stay classified and was given anonymously. It had 20 demographic, drug use, and addiction treatment questions. Statistical Package for Social Sciences v. 24 and Chi-Square test were used to examine the data after evaluating and coding it. Results Out of a total of 1179 participants, only 11% had not heard about shabu, about 38% did not know the main symptoms of crystal addiction, and 46% did not know the long side effects of crystal addiction. The majority of participants mentioned that shabu is available in powder format (57%) or liquid (13%), while 27% did not know its form. Most of the participants (97%) think that the drug of shabu or crystal or ice is dangerous; about 60% of participants mentioned that there is an addict in the family. Conclusion Parents have good knowledge levels regarding different aspects of methamphetamine or shabu abuse, symptoms, and its risk factors. Further in-depth studies are needed at whole Saudi Arabia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amaal A. Ibrahiem
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Reem E. Almeaqli
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ali A. Keshk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nasir A. Ali
- College of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Jazan University, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hussain Habil
- Faculty of Medicine, University MAHSA, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Peng Y, Wang Y, Liu L, Yang G, Zhang D, Hong S, Li L. The effects of ketamine and methamphetamine on neurotransmitters, glutamate receptors, and conditioned place preference in rat. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2023; 65:102328. [PMID: 37778205 DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2023.102328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Combined methamphetamine (MA) and ketamine (KET) abuse is a serious issue. At present, however, few studies have explored the mechanism underlying their combined addiction. We established a rat conditioned place preference (CPP) model. We investigated the role of dopamine (DA), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), monoamine oxidase (MAO), glutamate receptor 1 (GluR1), and glutamate receptor 2 (GluR2) in combined MA and KET addiction. The expression levels of DA, 5-HT, and MAO were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the expressions levels of GluR1 and GluR2 were detected by western blotting. Our results showed that MA and KET successfully induced CPP in rats respectively, and KET enhanced MA-induced CPP effects, although not significantly, and KET can reduce the MA-induced increase in DA, 5-HT, MAO and promoted the MA-induced increase in GluR1 and GluR2. Therefore, it suggested that DA, 5-HT, MAO, GluR1, and GluR2 expression may be involved in the mechanism underlying MA and KET-induced drug addiction in rats. Moreover, When MA and KET are used in combination, KET appears to play a dual addictive and anti-addictive role in the regulation of MA addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanxia Peng
- School of Forensic Medicine/NHC Key Laboratory of Drug Addiction Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Yihang Wang
- School of Forensic Medicine/NHC Key Laboratory of Drug Addiction Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China; School of Basic Medicine, Hubei University of Arts and Science, Hubei, China
| | - Linlin Liu
- School of Forensic Medicine/NHC Key Laboratory of Drug Addiction Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Genmeng Yang
- School of Forensic Medicine/NHC Key Laboratory of Drug Addiction Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Dongxian Zhang
- School of Forensic Medicine/NHC Key Laboratory of Drug Addiction Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Shijun Hong
- School of Forensic Medicine/NHC Key Laboratory of Drug Addiction Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.
| | - Lihua Li
- School of Forensic Medicine/NHC Key Laboratory of Drug Addiction Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.
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Turley B, Evans A, Benzio K. Comparative toxicology of syringe exchange and postmortem blood samples in the District of Columbia: Trends and affinity analysis. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:588-596. [PMID: 37530762 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkad052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
This cross-sectional analysis aimed to understand the similarities and differences between drugs detected in syringes collected from syringe service providers in the District of Columbia and fatal overdose deaths captured by the State Unintentional Drug Overdose Reporting System. Substance exposures for these fatal and non-fatal drug use outcomes have not been previously compared. Substance distributions were examined and a paired significance test was used to compare changes over time. Affinity analysis was employed to reveal substance co-occurrences. Between September 2020 and September 2022, 1,118 postmortem blood samples (PBSs) and 3,646 syringes exchange samples (SESs) were processed, with fatal overdoses increasing 24.1%. Polysubstance use was more commonly found in postmortem blood (82.5%) than in syringe samples (48.6%). Of samples containing opioids, 94.8% of blood samples and 86.3% of syringes contained fentanyl, fentanyl analogs or fentanyl precursors/metabolites. PBSs had double the frequency of co-occurring stimulants and opioids (43.9%) as SESs (21.8%). Major changes in occurrence frequency over time were found for opioid and stimulant exposure in both groups, especially in the increased occurrence of fluorofentanyl (>400%), methamphetamine (>90%) and xylazine (>60%), while the incidence of fentanyl, heroin and metabolite morphine declined. These results indicate that while fatal use and syringe exchange populations have distinct substance exposures, which may contribute to differences in mortality rate, their substance distributions have similar change magnitudes. This study highlights the utility of using multiple data sources to provide a comprehensive description of drug use patterns and discusses the limitations in reporting data from each source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Turley
- DC Department of Health, 899 North Capitol St NE, Washington, DC 20002, USA
- CDC Foundation, 600 Peachtree St NE #1000, Atlanta, GA 30308, USA
| | - Alexandra Evans
- DC Department of Forensic Sciences, 401 E St SW, Washington, DC 20024, USA
| | - Katharine Benzio
- DC Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 401 E St SW, Washington, DC 20024, USA
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4
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Jurič A, Lovaković BT, Zandona A, Rašić D, Češi M, Pizent A, Neuberg M, Canjuga I, Katalinić M, Vrdoljak AL, Rešić A, Karačonji IB. The effects of ketamine on viability, primary DNA damage, and oxidative stress parameters in HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cells. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2023; 74:106-114. [PMID: 37357882 PMCID: PMC10291499 DOI: 10.2478/aiht-2023-74-3727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Ketamine is a dissociative anaesthetic used to induce general anaesthesia in humans and laboratory animals. Due to its hallucinogenic and dissociative effects, it is also used as a recreational drug. Anaesthetic agents can cause toxic effects at the cellular level and affect cell survival, induce DNA damage, and cause oxidant/antioxidant imbalance. The aim of this study was to explore these possible adverse effects of ketamine on hepatocellular HepG2 and neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells after 24-hour exposure to a concentration range covering concentrations used in analgesia, drug abuse, and anaesthesia (0.39, 1.56, and 6.25 µmol/L, respectively). At these concentrations ketamine had relatively low toxic outcomes, as it lowered HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cell viability up to 30 %, and low, potentially repairable DNA damage. Interestingly, the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione (GSH) remained unchanged in both cell lines. On the other hand, oxidative stress markers [superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT)] pointed to ketamine-induced oxidant/antioxidant imbalance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreja Jurič
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Antonio Zandona
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Dubravka Rašić
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Martin Češi
- University of Zagreb Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Alica Pizent
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Irena Canjuga
- University North, University Centre Varaždin, Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Maja Katalinić
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Arnes Rešić
- Children’s Hospital Zagreb Department of Paediatrics, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Irena Brčić Karačonji
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
- University of Rijeka Faculty of Health Studies, Rijeka, Croatia
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Saito J, Zao H, Wu L, Iwasaki M, Sun Q, Hu C, Ishikawa M, Hirota K, Ma D. "Anti-cancer" effect of ketamine in comparison with MK801 on neuroglioma and lung cancer cells. Eur J Pharmacol 2023; 945:175580. [PMID: 36758782 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2023.175580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Ketamine, a N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, is commonly used to induce anaesthesia during cancer surgery and relieve neuropathic and cancer pain. This study was conducted to assess whether ketamine has any inhibiting effects on neuroglioma (H4) and lung cancer cells (A549) in vitro. The cultured H4 and A549 cells were treated with ketamine and MK801 (0.1, 1, 10, 100, or 1000 μM) for 24 h. The expressions of glutamate receptors on both types of cancer cells were assessed with qRT-PCR. In addition, cell proliferation and migration were assessed with cell counting Kit-8 and wound healing assays. Cyclin D1, matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (pERK), and cleaved-caspase-3 expression together with reactive oxygen species (ROS) were also assessed with Western blot, immunostaining, and/or flowcytometry. NMDA and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptors were expressed on both H4 and A549 cells. Ketamine inhibited cancer cell proliferation and migration in a dose-dependent manner by suppressing the cell cycle and inducing apoptosis. Ketamine decreased cyclin D1, pERK, and MMP9 expression. In addition, ketamine increased ROS and cleaved caspase-3 expression and induced apoptosis. The anti-cancer effect of ketamine was more pronounced in A549 cells when compared with H4 cells. MK801 showed similar effects to those of ketamine. Ketamine suppressed cell proliferation and migration in both neuroglioma and lung cancer cells, likely through the antagonization of NMDA receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junichi Saito
- Division of Anaesthetics, Pain Medicine and Intensive Care, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK; Department of Anesthesiology, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Aomori, Japan.
| | - Hailin Zao
- Division of Anaesthetics, Pain Medicine and Intensive Care, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Lingzhi Wu
- Division of Anaesthetics, Pain Medicine and Intensive Care, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Masae Iwasaki
- Division of Anaesthetics, Pain Medicine and Intensive Care, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK; Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Qizhe Sun
- Division of Anaesthetics, Pain Medicine and Intensive Care, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Cong Hu
- Division of Anaesthetics, Pain Medicine and Intensive Care, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Masashi Ishikawa
- Division of Anaesthetics, Pain Medicine and Intensive Care, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK; Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Kazuyoshi Hirota
- Department of Anesthesiology, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Aomori, Japan.
| | - Daqing Ma
- Division of Anaesthetics, Pain Medicine and Intensive Care, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK; National Clinical Research Center for Child Health, Hangzhou, China.
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Xu P, Li H, Qiu Q, Xiao X, Qiu Y, Li X, Wang Y, Zhou W, Shen H, Cui W. N-isopropylbenzylamine, a methamphetamine mimics, produces toxicity via increasing nitric oxide in vitro. Toxicology 2022; 480:153337. [PMID: 36162621 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2022.153337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
N-isopropylbenzylamine, an isomer of methamphetamine, has been used to adulterate methamphetamine, and distributed as fake "Ice" methamphetamine by illicit manufacturers, leading to a world problem of N-isopropylbenzylamine exposure. Though it is unclear whether N-isopropylbenzylamine has addictive potential like methamphetamine, N-isopropylbenzylamine users reported side effects such as headaches and confusion. However, the pharmacological targets and cytotoxicity of this chemical remained unknown. In this study, in vitro toxicity of N-isopropylbenzylamine and its toxicity-related targets were investigated in SN4741, SH-SY5Y or PC12 cell lines that model neurons. The cell viability was analyzed by using MTT assay after incubation with N-isopropylbenzylamine for 24 h in cells. N-isopropylbenzylamine caused cell death with IC50 values at around 1-3 mM in these cell lines. N-isopropylbenzylamine time- and concentration-dependently facilitated the expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), and increased intracellular nitric oxide (NO) in SN4741 cells. Furthermore, 7-nitroindazole, a specific inhibitor of nNOS, significantly prevented N-isopropylbenzylamine-induced toxicity in vitro. These results suggested that N-isopropylbenzylamine-induced toxicity is at least partially related to the increased intracellular NO levels and the activated nNOS. Considering the circumstances that N-isopropylbenzylamine was used to adulterate and mimic methamphetamine, and the side effects associated with N-isopropylbenzylamine in abusers, our findings sounded an alarm for abuser and warn the dangerousness of N-isopropylbenzylamine for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Xu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Haijie Li
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Qiyang Qiu
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Xiao Xiao
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Yi Qiu
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiangyu Li
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Youmei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Wenhua Zhou
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China; Ningbo Addiction Research and Treatment Centre, Ningbo, China; Ningbo Kangning Hospital, Ningbo, China
| | - Haowei Shen
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.
| | - Wei Cui
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.
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Ikeda-Murakami K, Ikeda T, Watanabe M, Tani N, Ishikawa T. Central nervous system stimulants promote nerve cell death under continuous hypoxia. Hum Cell 2022; 35:1391-1407. [PMID: 35737220 DOI: 10.1007/s13577-022-00734-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Intake of central nervous system (CNS) stimulants causes hypoxia and brain edema, which results in nerve cell death. However, no study has yet investigated the direct and continuous effects on nerve cells of CNS stimulants under hypoxia. Thus, based on autopsy cases, the effects of CNS stimulant drugs on the CNS were examined. The pathological changes in cultured nerve cells when various CNS stimulants were added under a hypoxic condition were also investigated. Five groups (Group A, stimulants; Group B, stimulants with psychiatric drugs; Group C, caffeine; Group D, psychiatric drugs; and Group E, no drugs) according to the detected drugs in autopsy cases were compared, and brain edema was evaluated using morphological findings. Furthermore, the number of dead cultured nerve cells was counted after the addition of drugs (4-aminopyridine (4-AP), caffeine, and ephedrine) under hypoxia (3% O2). Staining with anti-receptor-interacting protein 3 (RIP3) and other associated stains was also performed to investigate the neuronal changes in the brain. Group A showed significantly more brain edema than the other groups. In the culture experiments, the ratio of nerve cell death after the addition of 4-AP was the highest in the hypoxic condition. Groups with stimulants detected were stained more strongly by RIP3 immunostaining than by other staining. Addition of stimulants to cultured nerve cells in a persistent hypoxic condition led to severe cytotoxicity and nerve cell death. These findings suggest that necroptosis is involved in nerve cell death due to the addition of CNS stimulants in the hypoxic condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Ikeda-Murakami
- Department of Legal Medicine, Osaka City University Medical School, 1-4-3 Asahi-machi, Abeno, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan.
| | - Tomoya Ikeda
- Department of Legal Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-4-3 Asahi-machi, Abeno, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
- Forensic Autopsy Section, Medico-Legal Consultation and Postmortem Investigation Support Center, Department of Legal Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-4-3 Asahi-machi, Abeno, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
| | - Miho Watanabe
- Laboratory of Clinical Regenerative Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Medical Science Innovation Laboratory 403, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba City, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Naoto Tani
- Department of Legal Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-4-3 Asahi-machi, Abeno, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
- Forensic Autopsy Section, Medico-Legal Consultation and Postmortem Investigation Support Center, Department of Legal Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-4-3 Asahi-machi, Abeno, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
| | - Takaki Ishikawa
- Department of Legal Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-4-3 Asahi-machi, Abeno, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
- Forensic Autopsy Section, Medico-Legal Consultation and Postmortem Investigation Support Center, Department of Legal Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-4-3 Asahi-machi, Abeno, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
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Central Nervous System Stimulants Limit Caffeine Transport at the Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031862. [PMID: 35163784 PMCID: PMC8836437 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Caffeine, a common ingredient in energy drinks, crosses the blood-brain barrier easily, but the kinetics of caffeine across the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) has not been investigated. Therefore, 127 autopsy cases (Group A, 30 patients, stimulant-detected group; and Group B, 97 patients, no stimulant detected group) were examined. In addition, a BCSFB model was constructed using human vascular endothelial cells and human choroid plexus epithelial cells separated by a filter, and the kinetics of caffeine in the BCSFB and the effects of 4-aminopyridine (4-AP), a neuroexcitatory agent, were studied. Caffeine concentrations in right heart blood (Rs) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were compared in the autopsy cases: caffeine concentrations were higher in Rs than CSF in Group A compared to Group B. In the BCSFB model, caffeine and 4-AP were added to the upper layer, and the concentration in the lower layer of choroid plexus epithelial cells was measured. The CSF caffeine concentration was suppressed, depending on the 4-AP concentration. Histomorphological examination suggested that choroid plexus epithelial cells were involved in inhibiting the efflux of caffeine to the CSF. Thus, the simultaneous presence of stimulants and caffeine inhibits caffeine transfer across the BCSFB.
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Evaluation of cytokines and structural proteins to analyze the pathology of febrile central nervous system disease. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2021; 51:101864. [PMID: 33798967 DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2021.101864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
This study was designed to examine the pathophysiological differences in interleukin (IL) and structural protein levels between central nervous system (CNS) disorders associated with heat stroke and CNS stimulants. We measured the concentrations of IL-6, IL-8, neuron-specific enolase (NSE), and myelin basic protein (MBP) in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from 87 autopsy cases. In addition, to examine changes in each marker, we cultured nerve cells at 40 °C as a heat stroke model and administered 4-aminopyridine and ephedrine in cultured cells as a CNS stimulant model. IL-6 levels in blood and CSF were significantly higher in the stimulant compared with the heat stroke group. IL-8 levels in blood and CSF were relatively high in the stimulant, heat stroke, and psychotropic addiction groups. NSE levels in blood were high in the stimulant and heat stroke groups, while those in CSF were significantly higher in the heat stroke group. MBP levels in blood were markedly higher in the stimulant and heat stroke groups, but no differences were seen in CSF. Compared with the CNS stimulant model, the heat stroke model with cultured human nerve cells showed high values for each marker. The results of the autopsy and laboratory tests in the present cases and those of cultured cell experiments indicated that CNS disorders caused by CNS stimulants such as amphetamines led to changes in IL-6 as an immune response, which suggests that IL-8 may help protect nerve cells in cases involving heat stroke and stimulants.
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