Insight about methods used for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons reduction in smoked or grilled fishery and meat products for future re-engineering: A systematic review

Food process contaminants: formation, occurrence, risk assessment and mitigation strategies - a review

Thermal treatment of food can lead to the formation of potentially harmful chemicals, known as process contaminants. These are adventitious contaminants that are formed in food during processing and preparation. Various food processing techniques, such as heating, drying, grilling, and fermentation, can generate hazardous chemicals such as acrylamide (AA), advanced glycation end products (AGEs), heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), furan, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), N-nitroso compounds (NOCs), monochloropropane diols (MCPD) and their esters (MCPDE) which can be detrimental to human health. Despite efforts to prevent the formation of these compounds during processing, eliminating them is often challenging due to their unknown formation mechanisms. It is critical to identify the potential harm to human health in processed food and understand the mechanisms by which harmful compounds form during processing, as prolonged exposure to these toxic compounds can lead to health problems. Various mitigation strategies, such as the use of diverse pre- and post-processing treatments, product reformulation, additives, variable process conditions, and novel integrated processing techniques, have been proposed to control these food hazards. In this review, we summarize the formation and occurrence, the potential for harm to human health produced by process contaminants in food, and potential mitigation strategies to minimize their impact.

Comprehensive analysis and identification of the circ_0084615/miR-451a/MEF2D axis in benzo(a)pyrene exposed tumor cells in hepato-carcinogenesis

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is caused by genetic and epigenetic alterations, as well as abnormal lifestyle and dietary habits, including contaminated food intake. Benzo(a)pyrene (B[a]P), derived from deep-fried meats, is regarded as the main dietary factor for tumorigenesis in epidemiological investigations. Although various studies have illustrated the adverse effects of B[a]P in malignancy through cell and animal models, the correlation between B[a]P exposure and clinical data remain to be explored. In the present study, we analyzed and identified novel B[a]P-associated circular RNA (circRNA) from microarray databases of liver tumor cells and HCC patient samples. Considering that circRNA regulates mRNA as a miRNA sponge, molecular circRNA-miRNA-mRNA interactions based on the stimulation of B[a]P exposure were predicted and established. Furthermore, up-regulated circ_0084615 in B[a]P-treated tumor cells was verified as a miRNA sponge via fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assays, and the repression between circ_0084615 and target miR-451a exhibited a contrasting effect on hepatocarcinogenesis. Therefore, we performed integrated bioinformatics analysis and molecular experiments to establish the circ_0084615/miR-451a/MEF2D pathway, which provided a better understanding of the adverse effects of fried food preference on human health.

Effects of tea branch liquid smoke on oxidation and structure of myofibrillar protein derived from pork tenderloin during curing

This study focused on how different concentrations of tea branch liquid smoke (TLS) in the curing solution impacted the physicochemical properties and antioxidant properties of pork tenderloin. Five experimental (1.25 mL/kg, 2.5 mL/kg, 5 mL/kg, 10 mL/kg, 20 mL/kg) and blank groups set up over 4 days, and it was found that the physicochemical indexes, antioxidant capacity, thermal stability and protein network structure of the cured meat using 5 mL/kg of liquid smoke were excellent than the other groups used (P < 0.05). However, concentrations at 20 mL/kg accelerated protein oxidation. Low frequency nuclear magnetic resonance (LFNHR) revealed that TLS also improved the water holding capacity of the cured meat by increasing the percentage of bound water. Additionally, the correlation analysis demonstrated that the inoxidizability of myofibrillar protein was significantly related to cooking loss and water distribution, which were adjusted by changing the usage of liquid smoke.

The Effects of Different Natural Plant Extracts on the Formation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Roast Duck

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with high carcinogenicity and mutagenicity may be generated in roast duck during high-temperature roasting. Natural extracts with antioxidant effects may inhibit the formation of PAHs. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of green tea extract (GTE); extract of bamboo leaves (EBL); grape seed extract (GSE) and rosemary extract (RE) on PAHs in roast duck to obtain the optimum extract and present a guidance for reducing PAHs in roast duck. The total phenol content and antioxidant capacity of the four extracts were measured, and the PAH changes in the roast duck caused by the four extracts were detected. The total phenol content of GTE was the highest, 277 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g, while RE was the lowest at 85 mg GAE/g. The antioxidant capacity of RE was 1.9 mmol Trolox/g, which was significantly lower than that of the other three. The four extracts inhibited PAHs formation in roast duck to varying degrees: When the concentration was 25 g/kg, the best inhibitory effects on Benzo [a] pyrene (BaP) and PAH4 (BaP, BaA, BbF and CHR) were obtained from GTE, with inhibition rates of 75.8% and 79.7%, respectively, while the weakest inhibition rates, 32.7% and 43.6%, respectively, were from RE.

The High-Effective Catalytic Degradation of Benzo[a]pyrene by Mn-Corrolazine Regulated by Oriented External Electric Field: Insight From DFT Study

The degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene by Mn-corrolazine and its regulation by an oriented external electronic field (OEEF) were systematically studied using first-principle calculations. Extensive density function calculations showed that the degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene by Mn-corrolazine occurs via a three-step process in the absence of OEEF, in which a more toxic and stable epoxide intermediate is generated. However, upon application of OEEF along the intrinsic Mn-O reaction axis, the degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene is greatly simplified. The negative charge on the terminal O atom of Mn-OO corrolazine increases with an increase in the OEEF intensity. As the intensity of the OEEF increases over 0.004 a.u., the negatively charged terminal O atom has the ability to directly abstract the positively charged H atom of BaP and the degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene can be completed via a one-step process, avoiding the production of more toxic epoxide intermediates.

Barbecue conditions affect contents of oxygenated and non-oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in meat and non-meat patties

The contents of eight oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OPAHs; anthracene-9,10-dione, benzo[a]anthracene-7,12-dione, 11H-benzo[b]fluorene-11-one, 6H-benzo[cd]pyren-6-one, 7H-benzo[de]anthracene-7-one, 9,10-dihydro-8H-benzo[a]pyren-7-one, fluoren-9-one, and naphthacene-5,12-dione) and six PAHs (anthracene, fluorene, and PAH4) were investigated in barbecued meat and non-meat patties. The patties were prepared with ten setups (six replicates, each) of barbecue conditions defined by grill type, grate height, heating medium, and barbecue time. The highest median contents were observed with a disposable grill (OPAHs: 46.3 µg/kg; PAHs: 40.7 µg/kg) and a charcoal grill (OPAHs: 29.6 µg/kg; PAHs: 23.3 µg/kg). Fluoren-9-one and anthracene-9,10-dione were the dominant compounds within OPAHs, but also the four toxicologically most relevant OPAHs were detected with a total up to 11.8 µg/kg. Pairs of OPAHs and corresponding PAHs did not show strong correlations, as individual OPAHs and PAHs were affected differently by the barbecue conditions. No suitable markers for OPAH prediction could be found. We recommend to include OPAHs in future PAH investigations.

The effect of in-package cold plasma on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in charcoal-grilled beef steak with different oils or fats

In-package cold plasma (ICP) pretreatment is an emerging non-thermal food processing methods. In the current study, ICP on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in grilled beef steaks with different oils and fats was evaluated, the influence of prolonged storage periods (1 d, 2 d) of raw meat after ICP pretreatment on the PAH inhibitory effect was investigated. The results showed that sunflower seed oil had an inhibitory effect on PAH formation; the groups with ICP pretreatment showed a significant decrease in PAH content (p < 0.05) according to the UHPLC results, inhibitory rates were dependent on the original contents in each group without ICP pretreatment, ranging from 35% to 96%. The optimal condition was grilling immediately after ICP pretreatment, and the results indicated that the nonpolar radical scavenging activity (RSA) of ungrilled meat was negatively correlated with PAH8 contents according the DPPH assay, while ICP pretreatment enhanced the RSA_oil of raw meat.

Performances of the barrel kiln used in cottage industry for fish processing and effects on physicochemical characteristics and safety of smoked fish products

BACKGROUND

In the traditional food sector, the smoking process and smoking-drying process are widely used to increase the shelf-life of seafood products. The smoking process and smoking-drying process are mainly performed using barrel kiln and wood as fuel in many West African countries. The present study evaluated the performances of the barrel kiln and its effects on physicochemical characteristics and safety of smoked fish (SF) and smoked-dried fish (SDF). Twelve follow-ups were conducted with three experimental processors and 24 samples of fish collected at different steps of processing were analyzed in a laboratory using standard methods.

RESULTS

The extreme values of combustion temperature recorded during the smoking process (456.4 °C) and smoking-drying process (482.8 °C) were higher than 450 °C, the temperature at which wood pyrolysis generates polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Smoked fish were highly contaminated with PAHs, and showed maximal levels of benzo[a]pyrene (52.7 μg kg^-1 ) and PAH4 (i.e. sum of benzo[a]pyrene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and benz[a]anthracene) (290.9 μg kg^-1 ) exceeding the European Union limits by about 25-fold. After smoking of Scomber scombrus and smoking-drying of Cypselurus cyanopterus, no significant differences were recorded for lipid, protein and biogenic amine contents between fresh and processed fish, even if the histamine content of both fish exceeded the limit fixed by the European Union regulation.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained in the present study showed that smoked fish and smoked-dried fish produced using barrel kiln and wood fuel are highly contaminated by PAHs. Therefore, there is a need to improve the preservation practices of raw fish and smoking conditions to limit the contamination of end-products by PAHs known to be carcinogenic components for humans and to ensure consumer safety. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Recent advances in the development of healthier meat products

Meat products are an excellent source of high biological value proteins, in addition to the high content of minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds. However, meat products contain compounds that can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to humans. In this sense, this chapter will address recent strategies to assist in the development of healthier meat products. The main advances about the reduction of sodium and animal fat in meat products will be presented. In addition, strategies to make the lipid profile of meat products more nutritionally advantageous for human health will also be discussed. Finally, the reduction of substances of safety concern in meat products will be addressed, including phosphates, nitrites, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic aromatic amines, as well as products from lipid and protein oxidation.

Steam precooking, an effective pretreatment to reduce contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in traditionally smoked shrimp

Abstract

Traditionally smoked shrimps are highly contaminated with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The effect of precooking methods such as boiling (7 and 15 min) and steaming (15 and 20 min) on shrimp smoking effectiveness was investigated through smoking duration and the change of moisture, protein content, and PAHs contamination. The consumer's perception of derived shrimps was highlighted by acceptability and Just-About-Right test using 7-point hedonic and 3-point scale respectively. Both precooking methods didn't affect the shrimp protein content while steaming reduced significantly moisture content. All the precooking methods reduced significantly the smoking duration with the lowest values for steaming. Smoking with or free from precooking increased significantly PAHs content of shrimp. Although, the PAHs trends showed similar pattern for both precooking methods, steaming during 20 min before smoking enables to have the shrimp with Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and sum of benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene and BAP (PAH4) contents lower to the safety limit recommended by the European regulation. Irrespective of consumption forms, main sensory attributes of smoked steamed shrimps were scored as Just-About-Right by most consumers (65 to 88%). Steam precooking (20 min) is the better way for upgrading the shrimp safety with expected liking of consumers.

Graphical abstract

Exposure to Atmospheric Particulate Matter-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Health Effects: A Review

Particulate matter (PM) is a major factor contributing to air quality deterioration that enters the atmosphere as a consequence of various natural and anthropogenic activities. In PM, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) represent a class of organic chemicals with at least two aromatic rings that are mainly directly emitted via the incomplete combustion of various organic materials. Numerous toxicological and epidemiological studies have proven adverse links between exposure to particulate matter-bound (PM-bound) PAHs and human health due to their carcinogenicity and mutagenicity. Among human exposure routes, inhalation is the main pathway regarding PM-bound PAHs in the atmosphere. Moreover, the concentrations of PM-bound PAHs differ among people, microenvironments and areas. Hence, understanding the behaviour of PM-bound PAHs in the atmosphere is crucial. However, because current techniques hardly monitor PAHs in real-time, timely feedback on PAHs including the characteristics of their concentration and composition, is not obtained via real-time analysis methods. Therefore, in this review, we summarize personal exposure, and indoor and outdoor PM-bound PAH concentrations for different participants, spaces, and cities worldwide in recent years. The main aims are to clarify the characteristics of PM-bound PAHs under different exposure conditions, in addition to the health effects and assessment methods of PAHs.

Barbecued desi chicken: an investigation on the impact of polluted milieu upon formation and ingestion of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commercial versus laboratory barbecued organs along with stochastic cancer risk assessments in people from an industrial district of Punjab, Pakistan

8∑PAHs in 2- and 4-month-old desi chicken organs collected from Faisalabad district, Punjab, Pakistan, were examined via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Exposure doses (A_VDD) of PAHs with consequential lifetime excess cancer risks (L_tECR) were also estimated in people ingesting laboratory barbecued (L_b) and commercially barbecued (C_b) desi meat organs. The results exposed the presence of 8ΣPAH in 2- and 4-month-old L_b and C_b chicken organs: drumsticks (D_s), breast (B_S), and wings (W_s) (0.45, 3.10, 0.97 ng g^-1; 2.52, 4.31, 1.22 ng g^-1; and 10.09, 15.04, and 9.06 ng g^-1 respectively). BαP was found only in C_b organs with the highest concentrations (5.08 ng g^-1) in B_s. It was above the EU's tolerable limit, while it was not detected in all L_b organs. The lowest level of 8ΣPAH was found in 2-month-old desi W_s. A comparative percentage increase in 8ΣPAH levels between all L_b and C_b organs was found in the range of 1500-2416.67%. L_tECR for males and adults were ranging from 1.35 × E^-13 to 4.49 × E^-5 at different consumption rates with A_VDD ranging from 1.08 E^-6 to 6.01 E^-5. In contrast to 2- and 4- month-old chicken meat, 2-month-old desi meat is better having less PAH load. Comparing different organs, W_s of former one displayed abridged PAH levels. In conclusion, L_b desi meat is less carcinogenic relative to C_b. More PAH levels are due to secondary smoke in C_b samples collected from the metropolitan. Ingestion of L_b 2-month-old desi chicken organs could be safe to dine as compared with 4-month-old desi and C_b organs. Graphical abstract.