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Bohlen D, Karlstetter D, Leidner J, Kremer JI, Kirsch V, Eisenbrand G, Bakuradze T, Stegmüller S, Richling E. Dosimetry of human exposure to furan and 2-methylfuran by monitoring urinary biomarkers. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 189:114774. [PMID: 38824992 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2024.114774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Furan and 2-methylfuran (2-MF) can form during food processing and accumulate in foods at various concentrations depending on processing technology and beverage/meal preparation methods applied prior to consumption. Here, we report a controlled dosimetry study with 20 volunteers (10 male, 10 female) to monitor dietary furan/2-MF exposure. The volunteers followed an eleven-day furan/2-MF-restricted diet in which they consumed freshly prepared coffee brew containing known amounts of furan and 2-MF on two separate occasions (250 mL and 500 mL on days 4 and 8, respectively). Urine was collected over the whole study period and analyzed for key metabolites derived from the primary oxidative furan metabolite cis-2-butene-1,4-dial (BDA) (i.e., Lys-BDA, AcLys-BDA and cyclic GSH-BDA) and the primary 2-MF metabolite acetylacrolein (AcA, 4-oxo-pent-2-enal) (i.e., Lys-AcA and AcLys-AcA). A previously established stable isotope dilution analysis (SIDA) method was utilized. Excretion kinetics revealed two peaks (at 0-2 and 24-36 h) for AcLys-BDA, Lys-BDA, AcLysAcA and LysAcA, whereas GSH-BDA showed a single peak. Notably, women on average excreted the metabolite GSH-BDA slightly faster than men, indicating gender differences. Overall, the study provided further insights into the spectrum of possible biomarkers of furan and 2-methyfuran metabolites occurring in the urine of volunteers after coffee consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Bohlen
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - D Karlstetter
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - J Leidner
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - J I Kremer
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - V Kirsch
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - G Eisenbrand
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - T Bakuradze
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - S Stegmüller
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - E Richling
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany.
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2
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Kalisch C, Reiter M, Krieger M, Wüst L, Klotz C, Dekant R, Lachenmeier DW, Scherf-Clavel O, Mally A. Validation of putative biomarkers of furan exposure through quantitative analysis of furan metabolites in urine of F344 rats exposed to stable isotope labeled furan. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:1741-1756. [PMID: 38573339 PMCID: PMC11106183 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03722-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Humans are chronically exposed to furan, a potent liver toxicant and carcinogen that occurs in a variety of heat-processed foods. Assessment of human exposure based on the furan content in foods is, however, subject to some uncertainty due to the high volatility of furan. Biomarker monitoring is thus considered an alternative or complementary approach to furan exposure assessment. Previous work suggested that urinary furan metabolites derived from the reaction of cis-2-butene-1,4-dial (BDA), the reactive intermediate of furan, with glutathione (GSH) or amino acids may serve as potential biomarkers of furan exposure. However, some metabolites were also reported to occur in urine of untreated animals, indicating either background contamination via animal feed or endogenous sources, which may limit their suitability as biomarkers of exposure. The overall aim of the present study was to accurately establish the correlation between external dose and concentration of furan metabolites in urine over time and to discriminate against endogenous formation and furan intake via feed. To this end, the furan metabolites GSH-BDA (N-[4-carboxy-4-(3-mercapto-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)-1-oxobutyl]-L-cysteinylglycine), NAcLys-BDA (R-2-(acetylamino)-6-(2,5-dihydro-2-oxo-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)-1-hexanoic acid), NAcCys-BDA-NAcLys (N-acetyl-S-[1-[5-(acetylamino)-5-carboxypentyl]-1H-pyrrol-3-yl]-L-cysteine) and NAcCys-BDA-NAcLys sulfoxide (N-acetyl-S-[1-[5-(acetylamino)-5-carboxypentyl]-1H-pyrrol-3-yl]-L-cysteine sulfoxide) were simultaneously analyzed by stable isotope dilution ESI-LC-MS/MS as unlabeled and [13C4]-furan dependent metabolites following oral administration of a single oral dose of isotopically labelled [13C4]-furan (0.1, 1, 10, 100 and 1000 µg/kg bw) to male and female F344/DuCrl rats. Although a linear correlation between urinary excretion of [13C4]-furan-dependent metabolites was observed, analysis of unlabeled NAcLys-BDA, NAcCys-BDA-NAcLys and NAcCys-BDA-NAcLys sulfoxide revealed substantial, fairly constant urinary background levels throughout the course of the study. Analysis of furan in animal feed excluded feed as a source for these background levels. GSH-BDA was identified as the only furan metabolite without background occurrence, suggesting that it may present a specific biomarker to monitor external furan exposure. Studies in humans are now needed to establish if analysis of urinary GSH-BDA may provide reliable exposure estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Kalisch
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - M Reiter
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - M Krieger
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - L Wüst
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - C Klotz
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - R Dekant
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - D W Lachenmeier
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - O Scherf-Clavel
- Institute for Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - A Mally
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany.
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3
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Zhang Y, He H, Meng D, Zhu L, Jia W, Liu S, Jiao J, Ren R, Zhang Y. Rewiring cis-2-butene-1,4-dial mediated urinary metabolomics fingerprints of short-term exposure to furan. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 920:170946. [PMID: 38360302 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2024] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Furan represents one of the dietary-sourced persistent organic pollutants and thermal processing contaminants. Given its widespread occurrence in food and various toxicological effects, accurately assessing furan exposure is essential for informing public health risks. Furan is metabolized to a reactive primary product, cis-2-butene-1,4-dial (BDA) upon absorption. Some of the resulting BDA-derived metabolites have been proposed as potential exposure biomarkers of furan. However, the lack of quantification for recognized and feasible furan biomarkers has hampered the development of internal exposure risk assessment of furan. In this study, we employed reliable non-targeted metabolomics techniques to uncover urinary furan metabolites and elucidate their chemical structures. We characterized 8 reported and 11 new furan metabolites derived from the binding of BDA with glutathione (GSH), biogenic amines, and/or amino acids in the urine of male rats subjected to varying doses of furan. Notably, a mono-GSH-BDA adduct named cyclic GSH-BDA emerged as a highly prospective specific biomarker of furan exposure, as determined by an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. Cyclic GSH-BDA demonstrated a robust mass spectrometry ion response intensity and exhibited evident time- and dose response. Additionally, we conducted a comprehensive profiling of the kinetics of potential furan biomarkers over time to capture the metabolic dynamics of furan in vivo. Most urinary furan metabolites reached peak concentrations at either the first (3 h) or second (6 h) sampling time point and were largely eliminated within 36 h following furan treatment. The present study provides novel insights into furan metabolism and sheds light on the biomonitoring of furan exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiju Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine; Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Huali He
- Laboratory of Chemistry and Physics, Hangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310021, Zhejiang, China
| | - Denghui Meng
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine; Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Li Zhu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine; Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wei Jia
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine; Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Shaoying Liu
- Laboratory of Chemistry and Physics, Hangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310021, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jingjing Jiao
- Department of Nutrition, Zhejiang University School of Public Health; Department of Endocrinology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ren Ren
- Laboratory of Chemistry and Physics, Hangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310021, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine; Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China.
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Peng W, Law JCF, Leung KSY. Chlorination of bisphenols in water: Understanding the kinetics and formation mechanism of 2-butene-1,4-dial and analogues. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 459:132128. [PMID: 37515991 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
While it is widely accepted that 2-butene-1,4-dial (BDA) is a toxic metabolite with genotoxic and carcinogenic properties, little is known about BDA and its analogues (BDAs) formation during water disinfection. In this study, the effects of different chlorination conditions on the formation of BDAs from bisphenol and its analogues (BPs analogues) were evaluated. A transformation pathway for the formation of BDAs upon chlorination of BPs analogues is proposed. The time profile of the transformation of BPs analogues into BDAs reveals that the generation of dichlorohydroquinone, dichloro-hydroxybenzenesulfonic acid and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, are significantly associated with the formation of BDAs in the disinfected water. Owing to the different bridging groups contributing to the electrophilicity of BPs analogues in varying degrees, the stronger the electrophilicity of BPs analogues the more BDAs are formed. In addition, the type of BDAs produced is also affected. Four types of BDAs were detected in this study, one of which was newly identified. This study confirms that BPs analogues are an important source of BDAs and provides more insights into the formation of BDAs during chlorination. Greater attention should be given to the formation of BDAs in chlorinated water and their potential threat to humans and the ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiyu Peng
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, P. R. China
| | - Japhet Cheuk-Fung Law
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, P. R. China
| | - Kelvin Sze-Yin Leung
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, P. R. China; HKBU Institute of Research and Continuing Education, Shenzhen Virtual University Park, Shenzhen, P. R. China.
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Kremer JI, Karlstetter D, Kirsch V, Bohlen D, Klier C, Rotermund J, Thomas H, Lang L, Becker H, Bakuradze T, Stegmüller S, Richling E. Stable Isotope Dilution Analysis (SIDA) to Determine Metabolites of Furan and 2-Methylfuran in Human Urine Samples: A Pilot Study. Metabolites 2023; 13:1011. [PMID: 37755292 PMCID: PMC10535680 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13091011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Furan and 2-methylfuran (2-MF) are food contaminants that are classified as potentially carcinogenic to humans. The main source of exposure for adults via food is coffee consumption. Furan and 2-MF are volatile, which complicates exposure assessment because their content measured in food prior to consumption does not afford a reliable dosimetry. Therefore, other ways of exposure assessment need to be developed, preferably by monitoring exposure biomarkers, e.g., selected metabolites excreted in urine. In this study, cis-2-buten-1,4-dial (BDA)-derived urinary furan metabolites Lys-BDA (l-2-amino-6-(2,5-dihydro-2-oxo-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)hexanoic acid), AcLys-BDA (l-2-(acetylamino)-6-(2,5-dihydro-2-oxo-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)hexanoic acid) and GSH-BDA (N-[4-carboxy-4-(3-mercapto-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)-1-oxobutyl]-l-cysteinyl-glycine cyclic sulfide), as well as acetyl acrolein (AcA, 2-oxo-pent-2-enal)-derived metabolites Lys-AcA (l-2-(acetylamino)-6-(2,5-dihydro-5-methyl-2-oxo-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)-hexanoic acid) and AcLys-AcA (l-2-amino-6-(2,5-dihydro-5-methyl-2-oxo-1H-pyrrol-1-yl)-hexanoic acid) and their stable isotopically labeled analogs, were synthesized and characterized through NMR and MS, and a stable isotope dilution analysis (SIDA) with UPLC-ESI-MS/MS was established. As a proof of concept, urinary samples of a four-day human intervention study were used. In the frame of this study, ten subjects ingested 500 mL of coffee containing 0.648 µmol furan and 1.059 µmol 2-MF. Among the furan metabolites, AcLys-BDA was the most abundant, followed by Lys-BDA and GSH-BDA. Exposure to 2-MF via the coffee brew led to the formation of Lys-AcA and AcLys-AcA. Within 24 h, 89.1% of the ingested amount of furan and 15.4% of the ingested amount of 2-MF were detected in the urine in the form of the investigated metabolites. Therefore, GSH-BDA, Lys-BDA, AcLys-BDA, Lys-AcA and AcLys-AcA may be suitable as short-term-exposure biomarkers of furan and 2-MF exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Elke Richling
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schrödinger-Str. 52, D-67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany; (J.I.K.); (D.K.); (V.K.); (D.B.); (C.K.); (J.R.); (H.T.); (L.L.); (H.B.); (T.B.); (S.S.)
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6
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Zhang Y, Zhang Y. A comprehensive review of furan in foods: From dietary exposures and in vivo metabolism to mitigation measures. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2023; 22:809-841. [PMID: 36541202 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Furan is a thermal food processing contaminant that is ubiquitous in various food products such as coffee, canned and jarred foods, and cereals. A comprehensive summary of research progress on furan is presented in this review, including discussion of (i) formation pathways, (ii) occurrence and dietary exposures, (iii) analytical techniques, (iv) toxicities, (v) metabolism and metabolites, (vi) risk assessment, (vii) potential biomarkers, and (viii) mitigation measures. Dietary exposure to furan varies among different countries and age groups. Furan acts through various toxicological pathways mediated by its primary metabolite, cis-2-butene-1,4-dial (BDA). BDA can readily react with glutathione, amino acids, biogenic amines, or nucleotides to form corresponding metabolites, some of which have been proposed as potential biomarkers of exposure to furan. Present risk assessment of furan mainly employed the margin of exposure approach. Given the widespread occurrence of furan in foods and its harmful health effects, mitigating furan levels in foods or exploring potential dietary supplements to protect against furan toxicity is necessary for the benefit of food safety and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiju Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Fuli Institute of Food Science, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Fuli Institute of Food Science, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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7
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Rietjens IMCM, Michael A, Bolt HM, Siméon B, Andrea H, Nils H, Christine K, Angela M, Gloria P, Daniel R, Natalie T, Gerhard E. The role of endogenous versus exogenous sources in the exposome of putative genotoxins and consequences for risk assessment. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:1297-1352. [PMID: 35249149 PMCID: PMC9013691 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03242-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The "totality" of the human exposure is conceived to encompass life-associated endogenous and exogenous aggregate exposures. Process-related contaminants (PRCs) are not only formed in foods by heat processing, but also occur endogenously in the organism as physiological components of energy metabolism, potentially also generated by the human microbiome. To arrive at a comprehensive risk assessment, it is necessary to understand the contribution of in vivo background occurrence as compared to the ingestion from exogenous sources. Hence, this review provides an overview of the knowledge on the contribution of endogenous exposure to the overall exposure to putative genotoxic food contaminants, namely ethanol, acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, acrylamide, acrolein, α,β-unsaturated alkenals, glycation compounds, N-nitroso compounds, ethylene oxide, furans, 2- and 3-MCPD, and glycidyl esters. The evidence discussed herein allows to conclude that endogenous formation of some contaminants appears to contribute substantially to the exposome. This is of critical importance for risk assessment in the cases where endogenous exposure is suspected to outweigh the exogenous one (e.g. formaldehyde and acrolein).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Arand Michael
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstr. 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hermann M Bolt
- Department of Toxicology, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo), Ardeystr. 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany
| | | | - Hartwig Andrea
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Institute of Applied Biosciences (IAB), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Adenauerring 20a, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Hinrichsen Nils
- Food Oils and Fats Research, ADM Hamburg AG, Research, Seehafenstraße 24, 21079, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Kalisch Christine
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Straße 9, 97078, Wurzburg, Germany
| | - Mally Angela
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Straße 9, 97078, Wurzburg, Germany
| | - Pellegrino Gloria
- Scientific Affairs and Research, Luigi Lavazza SpA, Strada Settimo, 410, 10156, Turin, Italy
| | - Ribera Daniel
- Regulatory and Scientific Affairs EMEA, Cargill R&D, Havenstraat 84, 1800, Vivoorde, Belgium
| | - Thatcher Natalie
- Food Safety, Mondelez International, Bournville Lane, Birmingham, B30 2LU, UK
| | - Eisenbrand Gerhard
- Department of Toxicology and Food Chemistry, University of Kaiserslautern, Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
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