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Rawat M, Maupin-Furlow JA. Redox and Thiols in Archaea. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:antiox9050381. [PMID: 32380716 PMCID: PMC7278568 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9050381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Low molecular weight (LMW) thiols have many functions in bacteria and eukarya, ranging from redox homeostasis to acting as cofactors in numerous reactions, including detoxification of xenobiotic compounds. The LMW thiol, glutathione (GSH), is found in eukaryotes and many species of bacteria. Analogues of GSH include the structurally different LMW thiols: bacillithiol, mycothiol, ergothioneine, and coenzyme A. Many advances have been made in understanding the diverse and multiple functions of GSH and GSH analogues in bacteria but much less is known about distribution and functions of GSH and its analogues in archaea, which constitute the third domain of life, occupying many niches, including those in extreme environments. Archaea are able to use many energy sources and have many unique metabolic reactions and as a result are major contributors to geochemical cycles. As LMW thiols are major players in cells, this review explores the distribution of thiols and their biochemistry in archaea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamta Rawat
- Biology Department, California State University, Fresno, CA 93740, USA
- Correspondence: (M.R.); (J.A.M.-F.)
| | - Julie A. Maupin-Furlow
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Genetics Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Correspondence: (M.R.); (J.A.M.-F.)
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2
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Royer CJ, Cook PD. A structural and functional analysis of the glycosyltransferase BshA from Staphylococcus aureus: Insights into the reaction mechanism and regulation of bacillithiol production. Protein Sci 2019; 28:1083-1094. [PMID: 30968475 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Bacillithiol is a glucosamine-derived antioxidant found in several pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria. The compound is involved in maintaining the appropriate redox state within the cell as well as detoxifying foreign agents like the antibiotic fosfomycin. Bacillithiol is produced via the action of three enzymes, including BshA, a retaining GT-B glycosyltransferase that utilizes UDP-N-acetylglucosamine and l-malate to produce N-acetylglucosaminyl-malate. Recent studies suggest that retaining GT-B glycosyltransferases like BshA utilize a substrate-assisted mechanism that goes through an SN i-like transition state. In a previous study, we relied on X-ray crystallography as well as computational simulations to hypothesize the manner in which substrates would bind the enzyme, but several questions about substrate binding and the role of one of the amino acid residues persisted. Another study demonstrated that BshA might be subject to feedback inhibition by bacillithiol, but this phenomenon was not analyzed further to determine the exact mechanism of inhibition. Here we present X-ray crystallographic structures and steady-state kinetics results that help elucidate both of these issues. Our ligand-bound crystal structures demonstrate that the active site provides an appropriate steric and geometric arrangement of ligands to facilitate the substrate-assisted mechanism. Finally, we show that bacillithiol is competitive for UDP-N-acetylglucosamine with a Ki value near 120-130 μM and likely binds within the BshA active site, suggesting that bacillithiol modulates BshA activity via feedback inhibition. The work presented here furthers our understanding of bacillithiol metabolism and can aid in the development of inhibitors to counteract resistance to antibiotics such as fosfomycin.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paul D Cook
- Department of Chemistry, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan
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3
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Since the discovery and structural characterization of bacillithiol (BSH), the biochemical functions of BSH-biosynthesis enzymes (BshA/B/C) and BSH-dependent detoxification enzymes (FosB, Bst, GlxA/B) have been explored in Bacillus and Staphylococcus species. It was shown that BSH plays an important role in detoxification of reactive oxygen and electrophilic species, alkylating agents, toxins, and antibiotics. Recent Advances: More recently, new functions of BSH were discovered in metal homeostasis (Zn buffering, Fe-sulfur cluster, and copper homeostasis) and virulence control in Staphylococcus aureus. Unexpectedly, strains of the S. aureus NCTC8325 lineage were identified as natural BSH-deficient mutants. Modern mass spectrometry-based approaches have revealed the global reach of protein S-bacillithiolation in Firmicutes as an important regulatory redox modification under hypochlorite stress. S-bacillithiolation of OhrR, MetE, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (Gap) functions, analogous to S-glutathionylation, as both a redox-regulatory device and in thiol protection under oxidative stress. CRITICAL ISSUES Although the functions of the bacilliredoxin (Brx) pathways in the reversal of S-bacillithiolations have been recently addressed, significantly more work is needed to establish the complete Brx reduction pathway, including the major enzyme(s), for reduction of oxidized BSH (BSSB) and the targets of Brx action in vivo. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Despite the large number of identified S-bacillithiolated proteins, the physiological relevance of this redox modification was shown for only selected targets and should be a subject of future studies. In addition, many more BSH-dependent detoxification enzymes are evident from previous studies, although their roles and biochemical mechanisms require further study. This review of BSH research also pin-points these missing gaps for future research. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 28, 445-462.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pete Chandrangsu
- 1 Department of Microbiology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York
| | - Vu Van Loi
- 2 Institute for Biology-Microbiology , Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Haike Antelmann
- 2 Institute for Biology-Microbiology , Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - John D Helmann
- 1 Department of Microbiology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York
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Zhao H, Hu F, Yang H, Ding B, Xu X, He C, Cui Z, Shu W, Liu Q. Isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation proteomics analysis of gene regulation by SprC in Staphylococcus aureus. Future Microbiol 2017; 12:1181-1199. [PMID: 28876151 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2017-0033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To explore the complete gene networks regulated by small RNA SprC and its targets in Staphylococcus aureus. MATERIALS & METHODS The isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation and bioinformatic methods were utilized to identify and analyze the target proteins affected by SprC in S. aureus N315. RESULTS Proteomic analysis showed that the expression of 44 proteins was modulated by SprC. Further, bioinformatic analysis displayed that these affected proteins mainly associated with metabolic and cellular process, biological regulation and catalytic activity. CONCLUSION Our data provide a rich resource of SprC targets in S. aureus, although the mechanism of regulation by SprC is yet to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanqiang Zhao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Fupin Hu
- Institute of Antibiotics, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Han Yang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Baixing Ding
- Institute of Antibiotics, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaogang Xu
- Institute of Antibiotics, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chunyan He
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zelin Cui
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wen Shu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingzhong Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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5
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Winchell KR, Egeler PW, VanDuinen AJ, Jackson LB, Karpen ME, Cook PD. A Structural, Functional, and Computational Analysis of BshA, the First Enzyme in the Bacillithiol Biosynthesis Pathway. Biochemistry 2016; 55:4654-65. [PMID: 27454321 PMCID: PMC5954418 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b00472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Bacillithiol is a compound produced by several Gram-positive bacterial species, including the human pathogens Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus anthracis. It is involved in maintaining cellular redox balance as well as the destruction of reactive oxygen species and harmful xenobiotic agents, including the antibiotic fosfomycin. BshA, BshB, and BshC are the enzymes involved in bacillithiol biosynthesis. BshA is a retaining glycosyltransferase responsible for the first committed step in bacillithiol production, namely the addition of N-acetylglucosamine to l-malate. Retaining glycosyltransferases like BshA are proposed to utilize an SNi-like reaction mechanism in which leaving group departure and nucleophilic attack occur on the same face of the hexose. However, significant questions regarding the details of how BshA and similar enzymes accommodate their substrates and facilitate catalysis persist. Here we report X-ray crystallographic structures of BshA from Bacillus subtilis 168 bound with UMP and/or GlcNAc-mal at resolutions of 2.15 and 2.02 Å, respectively. These ligand-bound structures, along with our functional and computational studies, provide clearer insight into how BshA and other retaining GT-B glycosyltransferases operate, corroborating the substrate-assisted, SNi-like reaction mechanism. The analyses presented herein can serve as the basis for the design of inhibitors capable of preventing bacillithiol production and, subsequently, help combat resistance to fosfomycin in various pathogenic Gram-positive microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey R. Winchell
- Department of Chemistry, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, 49401, United States
| | - Paul W. Egeler
- Department of Chemistry, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, 49401, United States
| | - Andrew J. VanDuinen
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, 49401, United States
| | - Luke B. Jackson
- Department of Chemistry, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, 49401, United States
| | - Mary E. Karpen
- Department of Chemistry, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, 49401, United States
| | - Paul D. Cook
- Department of Chemistry, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, 49401, United States
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan, 49401, United States
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Sharma SV, Van Laer K, Messens J, Hamilton CJ. Thiol Redox and pKaProperties of Mycothiol, the Predominant Low-Molecular-Weight Thiol Cofactor in the Actinomycetes. Chembiochem 2016; 17:1689-92. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sunil V. Sharma
- School of Pharmacy; University of East Anglia; Norwich Research Park Norwich NR4 7TJ UK
| | - Koen Van Laer
- Department of Structural Biology; VIB; 1050 Brussels Belgium
- Structural Biology Brussels; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; 1050 Brussels Belgium
- Brussels Centre for Redox Biology; 1050 Brussels Belgium
- Division of Redox Regulation; German Cancer Research Centre (DKFZ); Im Neuenheimer Feld 280 69121 Heidelberg Germany
| | - Joris Messens
- Department of Structural Biology; VIB; 1050 Brussels Belgium
- Structural Biology Brussels; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; 1050 Brussels Belgium
- Brussels Centre for Redox Biology; 1050 Brussels Belgium
| | - Chris J. Hamilton
- School of Pharmacy; University of East Anglia; Norwich Research Park Norwich NR4 7TJ UK
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7
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Beavers WN, Skaar EP. Neutrophil-generated oxidative stress and protein damage in Staphylococcus aureus. Pathog Dis 2016; 74:ftw060. [PMID: 27354296 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftw060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a ubiquitous, versatile and dangerous pathogen. It colonizes over 30% of the human population, and is one of the leading causes of death by an infectious agent. During S. aureus colonization and invasion, leukocytes are recruited to the site of infection. To combat S. aureus, leukocytes generate an arsenal of reactive species including superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide and hypohalous acids that modify and inactivate cellular macromolecules, resulting in growth defects or death. When S. aureus colonization cannot be cleared by the immune system, antibiotic treatment is necessary and can be effective. Yet, this organism quickly gains resistance to each new antibiotic it encounters. Therefore, it is in the interest of human health to acquire a deeper understanding of how S. aureus evades killing by the immune system. Advances in this field will have implications for the design of future S. aureus treatments that complement and assist the host immune response. In that regard, this review focuses on how S. aureus avoids host-generated oxidative stress, and discusses the mechanisms used by S. aureus to survive oxidative damage including antioxidants, direct repair of damaged proteins, sensing oxidant stress and transcriptional changes. This review will elucidate areas for studies to identify and validate future antimicrobial targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- William N Beavers
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 1161 21st Avenue South, Medical Center North, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Eric P Skaar
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 1161 21st Avenue South, Medical Center North, Nashville, TN 37232, USA Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 1161 21st Avenue South, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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8
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Rosario-Cruz Z, Chahal HK, Mike LA, Skaar EP, Boyd JM. Bacillithiol has a role in Fe-S cluster biogenesis in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 2015; 98:218-42. [PMID: 26135358 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus does not produce the low-molecular-weight (LMW) thiol glutathione, but it does produce the LMW thiol bacillithiol (BSH). To better understand the roles that BSH plays in staphylococcal metabolism, we constructed and examined strains lacking BSH. Phenotypic analysis found that the BSH-deficient strains cultured either aerobically or anaerobically had growth defects that were alleviated by the addition of exogenous iron (Fe) or the amino acids leucine and isoleucine. The activities of the iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster-dependent enzymes LeuCD and IlvD, which are required for the biosynthesis of leucine and isoleucine, were decreased in strains lacking BSH. The BSH-deficient cells also had decreased aconitase and glutamate synthase activities, suggesting a general defect in Fe-S cluster biogenesis. The phenotypes of the BSH-deficient strains were exacerbated in strains lacking the Fe-S cluster carrier Nfu and partially suppressed by multicopy expression of either sufA or nfu, suggesting functional overlap between BSH and Fe-S carrier proteins. Biochemical analysis found that SufA bound and transferred Fe-S clusters to apo-aconitase, verifying that it serves as an Fe-S cluster carrier. The results presented are consistent with the hypothesis that BSH has roles in Fe homeostasis and the carriage of Fe-S clusters to apo-proteins in S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuelay Rosario-Cruz
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Harsimranjit K Chahal
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Laura A Mike
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Eric P Skaar
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Boyd
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
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9
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Perera VR, Newton GL, Pogliano K. Bacillithiol: a key protective thiol in Staphylococcus aureus. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2015; 13:1089-107. [PMID: 26184907 DOI: 10.1586/14787210.2015.1064309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Bacillithiol is a low-molecular-weight thiol analogous to glutathione and is found in several Firmicutes, including Staphylococcus aureus. Since its discovery in 2009, bacillithiol has been a topic of interest because it has been found to contribute to resistance during oxidative stress and detoxification of electrophiles, such as the antibiotic fosfomycin, in S. aureus. The rapid increase in resistance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to available therapeutic agents is a great health concern, and many research efforts are focused on identifying new drugs and targets to combat this organism. This review describes the discovery of bacillithiol, studies that have elucidated the physiological roles of this molecule in S. aureus and other Bacilli, and the contribution of bacillithiol to S. aureus fitness during pathogenesis. Additionally, the bacillithiol biosynthesis pathway is evaluated as a novel drug target that can be utilized in combination with existing therapies to treat S. aureus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varahenage R Perera
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California at San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Natural Sciences Building 4113, La Jolla, CA 92093-0377, USA
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10
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Handtke S, Schroeter R, Jürgen B, Methling K, Schlüter R, Albrecht D, van Hijum SAFT, Bongaerts J, Maurer KH, Lalk M, Schweder T, Hecker M, Voigt B. Bacillus pumilus reveals a remarkably high resistance to hydrogen peroxide provoked oxidative stress. PLoS One 2014; 9:e85625. [PMID: 24465625 PMCID: PMC3896406 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus pumilus is characterized by a higher oxidative stress resistance than other comparable industrially relevant Bacilli such as B. subtilis or B. licheniformis. In this study the response of B. pumilus to oxidative stress was investigated during a treatment with high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide at the proteome, transcriptome and metabolome level. Genes/proteins belonging to regulons, which are known to have important functions in the oxidative stress response of other organisms, were found to be upregulated, such as the Fur, Spx, SOS or CtsR regulon. Strikingly, parts of the fundamental PerR regulon responding to peroxide stress in B. subtilis are not encoded in the B. pumilus genome. Thus, B. pumilus misses the catalase KatA, the DNA-protection protein MrgA or the alkyl hydroperoxide reductase AhpCF. Data of this study suggests that the catalase KatX2 takes over the function of the missing KatA in the oxidative stress response of B. pumilus. The genome-wide expression analysis revealed an induction of bacillithiol (Cys-GlcN-malate, BSH) relevant genes. An analysis of the intracellular metabolites detected high intracellular levels of this protective metabolite, which indicates the importance of bacillithiol in the peroxide stress resistance of B. pumilus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Handtke
- Institute for Microbiology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Rebecca Schroeter
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Britta Jürgen
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Karen Methling
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Rabea Schlüter
- Institute for Microbiology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Dirk Albrecht
- Institute for Microbiology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Sacha A. F. T. van Hijum
- Centre for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics (CMBI), Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; and Division Processing and Safety, NIZO Food Research B.V., Ede, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes Bongaerts
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany
| | | | - Michael Lalk
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Thomas Schweder
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
- Institute of Marine Biotechnology, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Hecker
- Institute for Microbiology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
- Institute of Marine Biotechnology, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Birgit Voigt
- Institute for Microbiology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
- Institute of Marine Biotechnology, Greifswald, Germany
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Hernick M. Mycothiol: a target for potentiation of rifampin and other antibiotics againstMycobacterium tuberculosis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 11:49-67. [DOI: 10.1586/eri.12.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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12
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Importance of bacillithiol in the oxidative stress response of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 2013; 82:316-32. [PMID: 24166956 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01074-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In Staphylococcus aureus, the low-molecular-weight thiol called bacillithiol (BSH), together with cognate S-transferases, is believed to be the counterpart to the glutathione system of other organisms. To explore the physiological role of BSH in S. aureus, we constructed mutants with the deletion of bshA (sa1291), which encodes the glycosyltransferase that catalyzes the first step of BSH biosynthesis, and fosB (sa2124), which encodes a BSH-S-transferase that confers fosfomycin resistance, in several S. aureus strains, including clinical isolates. Mutation of fosB or bshA caused a 16- to 60-fold reduction in fosfomycin resistance in these S. aureus strains. High-pressure liquid chromatography analysis, which quantified thiol extracts, revealed some variability in the amounts of BSH present across S. aureus strains. Deletion of fosB led to a decrease in BSH levels. The fosB and bshA mutants of strain COL and a USA300 isolate, upon further characterization, were found to be sensitive to H2O2 and exhibited decreased NADPH levels compared with those in the isogenic parents. Microarray analyses of COL and the isogenic bshA mutant revealed increased expression of genes involved in staphyloxanthin synthesis in the bshA mutant relative to that in COL under thiol stress conditions. However, the bshA mutant of COL demonstrated decreased survival compared to that of the parent in human whole-blood survival assays; likewise, the naturally BSH-deficient strain SH1000 survived less well than its BSH-producing isogenic counterpart. Thus, the survival of S. aureus under oxidative stress is facilitated by BSH, possibly via a FosB-mediated mechanism, independently of its capability to produce staphyloxanthin.
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Gaballa A, Antelmann H, Hamilton CJ, Helmann JD. Regulation of Bacillus subtilis bacillithiol biosynthesis operons by Spx. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2013; 159:2025-2035. [PMID: 23894131 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.070482-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Bacillithiol is the major low molecular mass thiol produced by many firmicutes bacteria, including the model organism Bacillus subtilis and pathogens such as Bacillus anthracis and Staphylococcus aureus. We have previously shown that four genes (bshA, bshB1, bshB2 and bshC) are involved in bacillithiol biosynthesis. Here, we report that these four genes are encoded within three, unlinked operons all expressed from canonical σ(A)-dependent promoters as determined by 5'RACE (rapid amplification of cDNA ends). The bshA and bshB1 genes are embedded within a seven-gene operon additionally including mgsA, encoding methylglyoxal synthase, and the essential genes cca and birA, encoding tRNA nucleotidyltransferase (CCA transferase) and biotin-protein ligase, respectively. The bshB2 gene is co-transcribed with unknown function genes, while bshC is expressed both as part of a two-gene operon (with the upstream putative pantothenate biosynthesis gene ylbQ) and from its own promoter. All three operons are expressed at a reduced level in an spx null mutant, consistent with a direct role of Spx as a transcriptional activator for these operons, and all three operons are induced by the thiol oxidant diamide. In contrast with other Spx-regulated genes characterized to date, the effects of Spx on basal expression and diamide-stimulated expression appear to be independent of Cys10 in the redox centre of Spx. Consistent with the role of Spx as an activator of bacillithiol biosynthetic genes, cellular levels of bacillithiol are reduced several-fold in an spx null mutant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Gaballa
- Department of Microbiology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-8101, USA
| | - Haike Antelmann
- Institute for Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University of Greifswald, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Chris J Hamilton
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - John D Helmann
- Department of Microbiology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-8101, USA
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Analysis of mutants disrupted in bacillithiol metabolism in Staphylococcus aureus. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 436:128-33. [PMID: 23618856 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Bacillithiol (BSH), an α-anomeric glycoside of l-cysteinyl-d-glucosaminyl-l-malate, is a major low molecular weight thiol found in low GC Gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus. Like other low molecular weight thiols, BSH is likely involved in protection against a number of stresses. We examined S. aureus transposon mutants disrupted in each of the three genes associated with BSH biosynthesis. These mutants are sensitive to alkylating stress, oxidative stress, and metal stress indicating that BSH and BSH-dependent enzymes are involved in protection of S. aureus. We further demonstrate that BshB, a deacetylase involved in the second step of BSH biosynthesis, also acts as a BSH conjugate amidase and identify S. aureus USA 300 LAC 2626 as a BSH-S-transferase, which is able to conjugate chlorodinitrobenzene, cerulenin, and rifamycin to BSH.
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15
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Belda E, Sekowska A, Le Fèvre F, Morgat A, Mornico D, Ouzounis C, Vallenet D, Médigue C, Danchin A. An updated metabolic view of the Bacillus subtilis 168 genome. Microbiology (Reading) 2013; 159:757-770. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.064691-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Eugeni Belda
- UEVE, Université d'Evry, boulevard François Mitterrand, 91025 Evry, France
- CNRS-UMR 8030, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
- CEA, Institut de Génomique, Génoscope Laboratoire d’Analyse Bioinformatique en Génomique et Métabolisme, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
| | | | - François Le Fèvre
- UEVE, Université d'Evry, boulevard François Mitterrand, 91025 Evry, France
- CNRS-UMR 8030, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
- CEA, Institut de Génomique, Génoscope Laboratoire d’Analyse Bioinformatique en Génomique et Métabolisme, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
| | - Anne Morgat
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, CMU, 1 Michel-Servet, CH-1211 Genève 4, Switzerland
| | - Damien Mornico
- UEVE, Université d'Evry, boulevard François Mitterrand, 91025 Evry, France
- CNRS-UMR 8030, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
- CEA, Institut de Génomique, Génoscope Laboratoire d’Analyse Bioinformatique en Génomique et Métabolisme, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
| | - Christos Ouzounis
- Department of Biochemistry, Li KaShing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, 21, Sassoon Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Institute of Applied Biosciences, Centre for Research and Technology Hellas (CERTH), Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - David Vallenet
- UEVE, Université d'Evry, boulevard François Mitterrand, 91025 Evry, France
- CNRS-UMR 8030, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
- CEA, Institut de Génomique, Génoscope Laboratoire d’Analyse Bioinformatique en Génomique et Métabolisme, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
| | - Claudine Médigue
- UEVE, Université d'Evry, boulevard François Mitterrand, 91025 Evry, France
- CNRS-UMR 8030, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
- CEA, Institut de Génomique, Génoscope Laboratoire d’Analyse Bioinformatique en Génomique et Métabolisme, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
| | - Antoine Danchin
- Department of Biochemistry, Li KaShing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, 21, Sassoon Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
- AMAbiotics SAS, Bldg G1, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91000 Evry, France
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16
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Fahey RC. Glutathione analogs in prokaryotes. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2012; 1830:3182-98. [PMID: 23075826 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2012] [Revised: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 10/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oxygen is both essential and toxic to all forms of aerobic life and the chemical versatility and reactivity of thiols play a key role in both aspects. Cysteine thiol groups have key catalytic functions in enzymes but are readily damaged by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Low-molecular-weight thiols provide protective buffers against the hazards of ROS toxicity. Glutathione is the small protective thiol in nearly all eukaryotes but in prokaryotes the situation is far more complex. SCOPE OF REVIEW This review provides an introduction to the diversity of low-molecular-weight thiol protective systems in bacteria. The topics covered include the limitations of cysteine as a protector, the multiple origins and distribution of glutathione biosynthesis, mycothiol biosynthesis and function in Actinobacteria, recent discoveries involving bacillithiol found in Firmicutes, new insights on the biosynthesis and distribution of ergothioneine, and the potential protective roles played by coenzyme A and other thiols. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Bacteria have evolved a diverse collection of low-molecular-weight protective thiols to deal with oxygen toxicity and environmental challenges. Our understanding of how many of these thiols are produced and utilized is still at an early stage. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Extensive diversity existed among prokaryotes prior to evolution of the cyanobacteria and the development of an oxidizing atmosphere. Bacteria that managed to adapt to life under oxygen evolved, or acquired, the ability to produce a variety of small thiols for protection against the hazards of aerobic metabolism. Many pathogenic prokaryotes depend upon novel thiol protection systems that may provide targets for new antibacterial agents. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Cellular functions of glutathione.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert C Fahey
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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17
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Lamers AP, Keithly ME, Kim K, Cook PD, Stec DF, Hines KM, Sulikowski GA, Armstrong RN. Synthesis of bacillithiol and the catalytic selectivity of FosB-type fosfomycin resistance proteins. Org Lett 2012; 14:5207-9. [PMID: 23030527 DOI: 10.1021/ol302327t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Bacillithiol (BSH) has been prepared on the gram scale from the inexpensive starting material, D-glucosamine hydrochloride, in 11 steps and 8-9% overall yield. The BSH was used to survey the substrate and metal-ion selectivity of FosB enzymes from four Gram-positive microorganisms associated with the deactivation of the antibiotic fosfomycin. The in vitro results indicate that the preferred thiol substrate and metal ion for the FosB from Staphylococcus aureus are BSH and Ni(II), respectively. However, the metal-ion selectivity is less distinct with FosB from Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus anthracis, or Bacillus cereus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander P Lamers
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, USA
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