Chemical characteristics of saponins from Paris fargesii var. brevipetala and cytotoxic activity of its main ingredient, paris saponin H

Polyphyllin D-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer: Synthesis, Characterization, In Vitro, and in Vivo Studies

Polyphyllin D (PD), a steroidal saponin in Paris polyphylla, induces apoptosis via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway in different cancer types. However, emerging evidence has shown that the primary issue with PD is its structure's hemolysis and cytotoxicity. This study aimed to develop and optimize PD-loaded SLN formulation and evaluate its efficacy in breast cancer cell lines. Apoptosis, as the mechanism of cell death, was confirmed by flow cytometry following Annexin V/propidium iodide staining and western blot analysis. In in vivo studies, tumor inhibitory efficacy was compared with different doses of PD-loaded SLN on 4T1-implanted BALB/c mice. The half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of PD- loaded SLN was calculated to be 33.25 and 35.74 μg/mL for MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 cells, respectively. Flow cytometry analysis further confirmed a significant increase in apoptosis after treatment with PD- loaded SLN. When both cell lines were treated with PD-loaded SLN, Bcl2 and HSP70 proteins were down regulated, while Bax, Bad, P53, Apaf-1, p-p53 and Noxa proteins were upregulated. This effect was also confirmed by test performed on BALB/c mice in vivo. Based on results, PD-loaded SLN may be a promising breast cancer treatment, without recognizable side effects.

Steroidal saponins with cytotoxic activity from the stems and leaves of Paris fargesii

The stems and leaves of P. fargesii are rich in steroidal glycosides, some of which display significant cytotoxic activity.

UHPLC-qMS spectrum-effect relationships for Rhizoma Paridis extracts

Rhizoma Paridis (RP) with significant anti-tumor and haemostatic effects, has been used as the raw material of many Traditional Chinese preparations. However, its active ingredients are still unclear. The present study aimed to discover bioactive ingredients from RP based on spectrum-relationship and chemometric methods. Firstly, the saponins extract was prepared by phytochemical methods. Furthermore, UHPLC-QTOF-MS and UHPLC-qMS were incorporated to establish an efficient and sensitive method for obtaining the chemical profiles of RP. A total of 34 saponins were characterized in RP and 13 of them were assigned as common peaks in 25 batches of samples. After evaluation of the anti-tumor and haemostatic activities of samples, spectrum-effect relationships were investigated by the grey relational analysis (GRA), orthogonal projections to latent structures (OPLS) and back propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN). These analyses showed that polyphyllin VII (P27), polyphyllin II (P30), dioscin (P31) and polyphyllin I (P33) play a role in the haemostatic effects of RP whereas polyphyllin VII (P27), dioscin (P31), polyphyllin I (P33), progenin III (P34) were assigned as candidate ingredients accounting for the anti-tumor activity of RP. The anti-tumor and haemostatic activities of these screened ingredients were subsequently verified in vitro. Collectively, the present study established the spectrum-effect relationship mode of RP and discovered the bioactive compounds of RP, which could be also used for exploration of bioactive compounds in herbal medicines, especially for trace compounds.

In Vitro Effects on Thrombin of Paris Saponins and In Vivo Hemostatic Activity Evaluation of Paris fargesii var. brevipetala

The resource shortage of Rhizoma Paridis has never been effectively addressed, and the industry continues to search for alternative resources. The in vitro effects on thrombin of Paris saponins and in vivo hemostatic activity of Paris fargesii var. brevipetala (PF) were evaluated in this study. PF is considered to be an alternative source of Rhizoma Paridis (RP). The in vitro incubation experiment was designed to investigate the effects on thrombin activity of Paris saponin H (PS H) and saponin extract in PF. The bleeding time of mouse tail snipping was used to evaluate the in vivo hemostatic effects of Paris saponins. Also, in vivo changes in four blood coagulation parameters in rats after oral administration of different groups of Paris saponins were compared. The effects of Paris saponins on liver function and blood lipid parameters were examined in order to avoid drug-induced liver injury. Activity studies of thrombin after ultra-filtration centrifugation showed that Paris saponins were able to enhance thrombin activity. Ultra performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) analysis results of the substrates led us to speculate that there is a specific binding between Paris saponins and thrombin. PS H and Paris saponins in PF significantly shortened the bleeding time in mice. One pathway by which Paris saponins enhance in vivo blood coagulation is by increasing fibrinogen (FIB), among the four blood coagulation parameters in rats. At the same time, the effects on liver and blood lipid parameters were insignificant. P. fargesii var. brevipetala can be developed as an alternative medicinal source of Rhizoma Paridis.

Evaluation of Cytotoxic Effect of Different Extracts of Seidlitzia rosmarinus on HeLa and HepG2 Cell Lines

Background:

Seidlitzia rosmarinus which is commonly called “Oshnan” or “Eshnan” in Persian belongs to Chenopodiaceae family. Conventionally, it is believed that this plant is toxic. This study was aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic effect of S. rosmarinus against HeLa and HepG₂ cell lines.

Materials and Methods:

S. rosmarinus was collected from the desert near Yazd, Iran. Hexane, chloroform, chloroform/methanol (9:1), and butanol extracts of aerial parts of S. rosmarinus were prepared. Doxorubicin and dimethyl sulfoxide 10% were used as positive and negative control, respectively. The cytotoxic activity was measured using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay.

Results:

All extracts significantly and concentration dependently reduced viability of HeLa and HepG2 cells. Hexane, chloroform, and butanol extracts at doses of 200, 500, 750, and 1000 μg/ml significantly reduced HeLa cell viability (P < 0.05). Chloroform/methanol extract at doses of 100–500 μg/ml significantly reduced HeLa cell viability (P < 0.05). Hexane, chloroform, and butanol extracts at doses of 500, 750, and 1000 μg/ml significantly reduced HepG2 cell viability (P < 0.05). Chloroform/methanol extract at doses of 200, 300, 400, and 500 μg/ml significantly reduced HepG cell viability (P < 0.05). The most cytotoxic extract was chloroform/methanol extract in both cell lines. Furthermore, in the both cell lines, the second potent extract was chloroform extract.

Conclusions:

It can be concluded from the findings of this study that S. rosmarinus is a good candidate for further study to find new cytotoxic agents. Phytochemical investigation on chloroform/methanol extract and their structures is recommended.

New Steroidal Saponins from the Rhizomes of Paris vietnamensis and Their Cytotoxicity

Four new spirostanol saponins, named pavitnosides A–D (1–4), with six known steroidal saponins 5–10 were isolated from the rhizomes of Paris vietnamensis. Their chemical structures were determined based on extensive spectroscopic studies and chemical methods. The aglycones of pavitnoside B and pavitnoside C were not reported in previous work. The cytotoxicity of all saponins was evaluated against human glioblastoma U87MG and U251 cell lines. The new spirostanol saponin 1 displayed weak anti-proliferative activity against U87MG cell line and the known saponins 8 and 9 exhibited significant cytotoxicity against the two tumor cell lines, with IC₅₀ values of 2.16 to 3.14 μM, but did not affect the growth of primary cultures of human astrocytes.

Paris Saponin I Sensitizes Gastric Cancer Cell Lines to Cisplatin via Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis

BACKGROUND Dose-related toxicity is the major restriction of cisplatin and cisplatin-combination chemotherapy, and is a challenge for advanced gastric cancer treatment. We explored the possibility of using Paris saponin I as an agent to sensitize gastric cancer cells to cisplatin, and examined the underlying mechanism. MATERIAL AND METHODS Growth inhibition was detected by MTT assay. The cell cycle and apoptosis were detected using flow cytometry and Annexin V/PI staining. The P21waf1/cip1, Bcl-2, Bax, and caspase-3 protein expression were detected using Western blot analysis. RESULTS The results revealed that PSI sensitized gastric cancer cells to cisplatin, with low toxicity. The IC50 value of cisplatin in SGC-7901 cell lines was decreased when combined with PSI. PSI promoted cisplatin-induced G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis in a cisplatin concentration-dependent manner. Bcl-2 protein expression decreased, but Bax, caspase-3, and P21waf1/cip1 protein expression increased with PSI treatment. CONCLUSIONS The underlying mechanism of Paris saponin I may be related to targeting the apoptosis pathway and cell cycle blocking, which suggests that PSI is a potential therapeutic sensitizer for cisplatin in treating gastric cancer.

Quantitative determination of gracillin by HPLC-MS/MS after oral administration and its application to a pharmacokinetic study

A sensitive and credible high performance liquid chromatography hyphenated to mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was established to quantify the concentration of gracillin in rat plasma. The plasma samples were subjected to a direct protein precipitation process with acetonitrile as a precipitant in a single-step. Ginsenoside Rb1 was selected as an internal standard (IS). The chromatographic separation of analyte and IS were carried out on an Inersil ODS-3 C18 column (250×4.6mm, 5μm) with a binary solvent system containing acetonitrile and 0.1% formic acid in water at a flow rate of 1mLmin(-1) under a gradient elution mode. Mass spectrometric detection was performed on a triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer by the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode to examine the precursor-to-daughter ion transitions of 1110.3→948.2 for IS and 886.1→739.9 for gracillin, respectively, in a positive electrospray ionization mode. The calibration curve showed a promising linearity over a concentration range of 0.065-800ngmL(-1) with a better regression coefficient of r(2)=0.9960. The intra- and inter-day precisions (as relative standard deviation) of the assay at three quality control levels were all less than 3.48%, while the intra- and inter-day accuracies (as relative error) ranged from -8.43% to 9.74%, whose data were within the acceptable limits. The mean extraction recoveries of analyte from rat plasma were all more than 74.11%, and no notable matrix effect was observed. Stability experiments revealed that gracillin remained stable throughout the analytical procedure under various stored conditions. The above validated method was successfully used to investigate the pharmacokinetic behaviors of gracillin orally administrated to rats at three proportion doses. The pharmacokinetic analysis would pave the way for understanding the pharmacological actions and provide a meaningful foundation for further development and application in preclinical and clinical use of gracillin in the near future.

Anticancer Effects of Paris Saponins by Apoptosis and PI3K/AKT Pathway in Gefitinib-Resistant Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Background

Paris saponins have been studied for their anticancer effects in various cancer types, but the mechanisms underlying the cytotoxic effects, especially in EGFR-TKI-resistant cells, are still unclear. We explored the potential mechanism of the antitumor effects of PSI, II, VI, VII in EGFR-TKI-resistant cells and attempted to develop PSI, II, VI, VII as a systemic treatment strategy for EGFR-TKI-resistant lung cancer.

Material/Methods

Growth inhibition was detected by MTT assay. The apoptosis assay was detected using annexin-V/PI and Hoechst staining. The level of PI3K, pAKT, Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-3, and caspase-9 protein expression were detected using Western blot analysis.

Results

The results revealed that PSI, II, VI, VII inhibited the proliferation of PC-9-ZD cells. Furthermore, PSI, II, VI, VII induced significant cell apoptosis. The levels of PI3K, pAKT, Bcl-2 protein decreased, while the Bax, caspase-3, and caspase-9 protein was increased by PSI, II, PSVI, PSVII treatment and resulted in increased sensitivity to gefitinib in PC-9-ZD cells.

Conclusions

The underlying mechanism of Paris saponins may be related to targeting the PI3K/AKT pathways to cause apoptosis. Our results suggest a therapeutic potential of Paris saponins in clinical settings for gefitinib-resistant NSCLC.

Pennogenyl Saponins from Paris quadrifolia L. Induce Extrinsic and Intrinsic Pathway of Apoptosis in Human Cervical Cancer HeLa Cells

Pennogenyl saponins are the active compounds of large number of plant species and consequently many polyherbal formulations. Hence, great interest has been shown in their characterization and in the investigation of their pharmacological and biological properties, especially anticancer. This present study reports on the evaluation of cytotoxic effects and explanation of the molecular mechanisms of action of the two pennogenyl saponins (PS 1 and PS 2) isolated from Paris quadrifolia L. rhizomes on human cervical adenocarcinoma cell line HeLa. To determine the viability of the cells treated with the compounds we used real-time cell proliferation analysis and found that the pennogenyl saponins PS 1 and PS 2 strongly inhibited the tumor cells growth with IC50 values of 1.11 ± 0.04 μg/ml and 0.87 ± 0.05 μg/ml, respectively. The flow cytometry analysis indicated that the two compounds induced apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential in HeLa cells in the early stage of apoptosis. Quantitative PCR and Western Blot analysis showed that the two saponins significantly increased mRNA expression of FADD and BID as well as induced caspase-8 via increased of procaspase-8 processing in the treated cells. The results of this study suggest that both the extrinsic death receptor and intrinsic mitochondrial pathways are involved in the programmed cell death.

Anti-lung Cancer Effects of Polyphyllin VI and VII Potentially Correlate with Apoptosis In Vitro and In Vivo

Polyphyllin VI (PVI) and polyphyllin VII (PVII) derived from Paris polyphylla possess anti-cancer activities. However, the mechanisms for the anti-lung cancer effects of PVI and PVII remain poorly understood. In this study, PVI and PVII exhibited inhibitory effects on the proliferation of A549 and NCI-H1299 cells. PVI and PVII induced G2/M cell cycle arrest and triggered apoptosis. PVI and PVII upregulated the tumor suppressor protein p53 and downregulated cyclin B1. The two treatments significantly increased the expression levels of death receptor 3, death receptor 5, Fas, cleaved PARP, and cleaved caspase-3. Furthermore, PVI and PVII significantly inhibited the growth of A549 cells in vivo. The tumor inhibitory rates of PVI were 25.74%, 34.62%, and 40.43% at 2, 3, and 4 mg/kg, respectively, and those of PVII were 25.63%, 41.71%, and 40.41% at 1, 2, and 3 mg/kg, respectively. Finally, PVI and PVII regulated the expression of proteins related to the apoptotic pathway in A549 xenografts. In summary, PVI and PVII exhibited strong inhibitory effects on lung cancer cell growth in vitro and in vivo by inducing G2/M cell cycle arrest and triggering apoptosis.

Paris saponin II inhibits human ovarian cancer cell-induced angiogenesis by modulating NF-κB signaling

The clinical applications of Rhizoma paridis in traditional Chinese medicine are well known. However, the therapeutic potential of Rhizoma paridis and its active component such as Paris saponin I (polyphyllin D) and Paris saponin II (PSII) (formosanin C) in cancer treatments have not yet been fully explored. Recent studies have demonstrated that PSII and chemoagents exhibit comparable inhibitory affects against human ovarian cancer cell growth. Since NF-κB, a ubiquitous transcription factor that plays an important role in cancer biology, is often associated with gynecological cancers, in the present study, we evaluated the possibility that PSII modulates NF-κB activity and VEGF-mediated angiogenesis and elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying such effects. We assessed the effects of PSII on NF-κB activity in SKOV3 tumor cells and on tumor cell induced-angiogenesis using standardized angiogenesis in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo assays, western blot analysis and kinase assay. We also assessed the effect of the super-engineered repressor of IĸBα and its effect, in combination with PSII treatment on tumor growth and angiogenesis in xenograft athymic mouse models of ovarian cancer (SKOV3 and SKOV3/mutant IĸBα cells) using color Doppler ultrasound and traditional immunohistochemistry. We showed that PSII suppressed NF-κB activation as a result of the reduction in IKKβ kinase activity on its substrate IκBα and the expression of IKKβ. Compromising NF-κB activation reduced the expression of NF-κB-downstream targets such as VEGF, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. Such inhibitory effects at molecular levels appear to compromise tumor growth and angiogenesis. Most importantly, the combination of PSII treatment and constitutive repression of IĸBα activity exhibited marked inhibitory effects against human ovarian cancer cell growth in a xenograft mouse model of ovarian cancer. For the first time, we provide evidence showing that PSII potently inhibits angiogenesis and the growth of human ovarian cancer by suppressing NF-κB signaling.

Paris Saponin II suppresses the growth of human ovarian cancer xenografts via modulating VEGF-mediated angiogenesis and tumor cell migration

PURPOSE

Paris Saponin II (PSII) is an active component of Rhizoma Paridis-an essential ingredient in traditional Chinese herbal medicines. PSII can induce cytotoxic effects in cancer cells and inhibit ovarian cancer growth. Since pathological angiogenesis (henceforth, angiogenesis) is often associated with gynecological cancers, here, we investigated whether PSII renders effects on angiogenesis and examined possible molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of PSII.

METHODS

The effects of PSII on the biofunctions of endothelial cells (EC), the crucial components of blood vessels, were examined by standardized angiogenesis in vitro and ex vivo assays, Western blot analysis, ELISA, and kinase assay. Angiogenesis in a xenograft mouse model of ovarian cancer was evaluated by color Doppler ultrasound and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

PSII exerted marked inhibitory effect on the growth of VEGF-stimulated human umbilical vein endothelial cells in a dose-time-dependent manner, inhibited cell's motility, and interfered with tubulogenesis. PSII also blocked microvessel outgrowth in a rat aortic ring assay and compromised angiogenesis in a mouse model of ovarian carcinoma using either SKOV3 or HOC-7 cell lines. VEGF levels in PSII-treated EC and tumor cells were reduced. In EC, PSII blocked the activation of VEGFR2 in dose-dependent manner leading to the reduction of VEGF-induced phosphorylation on several intracellular pro-angiogenic kinase, including the extracellular signal-related kinase, Src family kinase, focal adhesion kinase, and AKT kinase.

CONCLUSIONS

The results provided the first insight into the anti-angiogenesis properties of Saponin family in solid tumors and suggested a promising therapeutic potential of PSII in the ovarian cancer treatment.

Correlation among cytotoxicity, hemolytic activity and the composition of steroidal saponins from Paris L

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cytotoxicity and hemolysis of saponins were the characteristic activities. Many researches have been devoted to the synthesis of saponins devoid of the hemolysis by structure-activity relationship studies. However, saponins contained in the plants were not fully researched on the two activities such as Parissteroidal saponins. Paris steroidal saponins as the active compounds of Paris plants have multiple effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the present study, we investigated the cytotoxicity and hemolytic activity of Paris plants collected from twelve places in China. The contents of nine known steroidal saponins in the plants were determined simultaneously using HPLC-ELSD method. The two activities are not related to the contents of saponins.

RESULTS

As the results of hemolysis of saponins shown, the hemolysis was positive related to the sugar chain. The membrane toxicity suggested that the integration of saponins with the membrane in erythrocyte was correlated to the kinds of saponins and the hemolysis of disosgenyl saponins were stronger than that of pennogenyl glycosides.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provided information about the hemolysis and cytotoxicity of Paris steroidal saponins, which may be useful for their synthesis devoid of hemolysis toxicity.

Formulation and in vitro absorption analysis of Rhizoma paridis steroidal saponins

Rhizoma paridis steroidal saponins (RPS) have been prepared and identified as the active compounds for antitumor activity in our previous study. However, the low oral bioavailability of the steroidal saponins restricted its using. In the present research, solid dispersion (SD) and phytosome (PHY) formulation of RPS were prepared, and the physicochemical parameters as well as the intestinal absorption in rat everted gut sac model were investigated. Seven agents were selected as the carriers of SD, and poloxamer 407 (P 407) was the most suitable one. SD reduced the particle size of saponins in the water solution, enhanced the solubility of the saponins by about 3.5 folds, and significantly improved the absorption transport of saponins from 48 to 104 μg in everted gut sac of the rat system. PHY significantly enhanced the hydrophilic of saponins but showed little effect on the absorption in small intestine. Jejunum and ileum part absorbed more absolute contents of total saponins than duodenum parts. Six saponins, the main contents of RPS, used as the index of comparing the three forms, were also further investigated in the physico-chemical properties and the absorption tests. n-Octanol/water partition coefficients of the six saponins ordered in RPS, SD and PHY were Chonglouoside H>Dioscin>Polyphyllin D>Gracillin>Paris-VII>Formosanin C. All the saponins possessed the higher absorptive characteristics in SD formulation. The absorption rate of diosgenyl saponins in intestine was more than the pennogenyl saponins.