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Thomas GA, Paradell Gil T, Müller CT, Rogers HJ, Berger CN. From field to plate: How do bacterial enteric pathogens interact with ready-to-eat fruit and vegetables, causing disease outbreaks? Food Microbiol 2024; 117:104389. [PMID: 37919001 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2023.104389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Ready-to-eat fruit and vegetables are a convenient source of nutrients and fibre for consumers, and are generally safe to eat, but are vulnerable to contamination with human enteric bacterial pathogens. Over the last decade, Salmonella spp., pathogenic Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes have been linked to most of the bacterial outbreaks of foodborne illness associated with fresh produce. The origins of these outbreaks have been traced to multiple sources of contamination from pre-harvest (soil, seeds, irrigation water, domestic and wild animal faecal matter) or post-harvest operations (storage, preparation and packaging). These pathogens have developed multiple processes for successful attachment, survival and colonization conferring them the ability to adapt to multiple environments. However, these processes differ across bacterial strains from the same species, and across different plant species or cultivars. In a competitive environment, additional risk factors are the plant microbiome phyllosphere and the plant responses; both factors directly modulate the survival of the pathogens on the leaf's surface. Understanding the mechanisms involved in bacterial attachment to, colonization of, and proliferation, on fresh produce and the role of the plant in resisting bacterial contamination is therefore crucial to reducing future outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth A Thomas
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Teresa Paradell Gil
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Carsten T Müller
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Hilary J Rogers
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Cedric N Berger
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK.
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2
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Park YJ, Kim SY, Song WJ. Inactivation of Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes on buckwheat seeds through combination treatment with plasma, vacuum packaging, and hot water. J Appl Microbiol 2023; 134:lxad272. [PMID: 37974046 DOI: 10.1093/jambio/lxad272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 11/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
AIMS The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of combination treatment with cold plasma (CP), vacuum packaging (VP), and hot water (HW) on the inactivation of foodborne pathogens on buckwheat seeds, and determined the germination rates of seeds and the quality of sprouts following combination treatment. METHODS AND RESULTS Buckwheat seeds inoculated with Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes were treated with CP, HW, CP + HW, VP + HW, or CP + VP + HW. The germination rates of the HW-, CP + HW-, VP + HW-, and CP + VP + HW-treated seeds and the antioxidant activities and rutin contents of the CP + HW- and CP + VP + HW-treated sprouts were determined. HW, CP + HW, and CP + VP + HW were found to reduce the levels of the two pathogens to below the detection limit (1.0 log CFU g-1) at 70°C. However, HW and CP + HW significantly reduced the germination rate of buckwheat seeds. CP + VP + HW did not affect the germination rate of seeds nor the antioxidant activities and rutin content of buckwheat sprouts. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that CP + VP + HW can be used as a novel control method to reduce foodborne pathogens in seeds without causing quality deterioration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye-Jin Park
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Kyonggi University, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 16227, Republic of Korea
| | - Su-Yeon Kim
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Kyonggi University, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 16227, Republic of Korea
| | - Won-Jae Song
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Kyonggi University, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 16227, Republic of Korea
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3
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Murali AP, Trząskowska M, Trafialek J. Microorganisms in Organic Food-Issues to Be Addressed. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1557. [PMID: 37375059 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11061557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The review aimed to analyse the latest data on microorganisms present in organic food, both beneficial and unwanted. In conclusion, organic food's microbial quality is generally similar to that of conventionally produced food. However, some studies suggest that organic food may contain fewer pathogens, such as antibiotic-resistant strains, due to the absence of antibiotic use in organic farming practices. However, there is little discussion and data regarding the importance of some methods used in organic farming and the risk of food pathogens presence. Concerning data gaps, it is necessary to plan and perform detailed studies of the microbiological safety of organic food, including foodborne viruses and parasites and factors related to this method of cultivation and specific processing requirements. Such knowledge is essential for more effective management of the safety of this food. The use of beneficial bacteria in organic food production has not yet been widely addressed in the scientific literature. This is particularly desirable due to the properties of the separately researched probiotics and the organic food matrix. The microbiological quality of organic food and its potential impact on human health is worth further research to confirm its safety and to assess the beneficial properties resulting from the addition of probiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparna P Murali
- Department of Food Gastronomy and Food Hygiene, Institute of Human Nutrition Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS), Nowoursynowska 159C, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Monika Trząskowska
- Department of Food Gastronomy and Food Hygiene, Institute of Human Nutrition Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS), Nowoursynowska 159C, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Trafialek
- Department of Food Gastronomy and Food Hygiene, Institute of Human Nutrition Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS), Nowoursynowska 159C, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
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4
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Bourdoux S, Zambon A, Van der Linden I, Spilimbergo S, Devlieghere F, Rajkovic A. Inactivation of foodborne pathogens on leek and alfalfa seeds with supercritical carbon dioxide. J Supercrit Fluids 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2021.105433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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5
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Flynn BT, Kozak SM, Lawton MR, Alcaine SD. Lactose oxidase: An enzymatic approach to inhibit Listeria monocytogenes in milk. J Dairy Sci 2021; 104:10594-10608. [PMID: 34334205 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2021-20450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is a ubiquitous pathogen that can cause morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised individuals. Growth of L. monocytogenes is possible at refrigeration temperatures due to its psychrotrophic nature. The use of antimicrobials in dairy products is a potential way to control L. monocytogenes growth in processes with no thermal kill step, thereby enhancing the safety of such products. Microbial-based enzymes offer a clean-label approach for control of L. monocytogenes outgrowth. Lactose oxidase (LO) is a microbial-derived enzyme with antimicrobial properties. It oxidizes lactose into lactobionic acid and reduces oxygen, generating H2O2. This study investigated the effects of LO in UHT skim milk using different L. monocytogenes contamination scenarios. These LO treatments were then applied to raw milk with various modifications; higher levels of LO as well as supplementation with thiocyanate were added to activate the lactoperoxidase system, a natural antimicrobial system present in milk. In UHT skim milk, concentrations of 0.0060, 0.012, and 0.12 g/L LO each reduced L. monocytogenes counts to below the limit of detection between 14 and 21 d of refrigerated storage, dependent on the concentration of LO. In the 48-h trials in UHT skim milk, LO treatments were effective in a concentration-dependent fashion. The highest concentration of LO in the 21-d trials, 0.12 g/L, did not show great inhibition over 48 h, so concentrations were increased for these experiments. In the lower inoculum, after 48 h, a 12 g/L LO treatment reached levels of 1.7 log cfu/mL, a reduction of 1.3 log cfu/mL from the initial inoculum, whereas the control grew out to approximately 4 log cfu/mL, an increase of 1 log cfu/mL from the inoculum on d 0. When a higher challenge inoculum of 5 log cfu/mL was used, the 0.12 g/L and 1.2 g/L treatments reduced the levels by 0.2 to 0.3 log cfu/mL below the initial inoculum and the 12 g/L treatment by >1 log cfu/mL below the initial inoculum by hour 48 of storage at refrigeration temperatures. After the efficacy of LO was determined in UHT skim milk, LO treatments were applied to raw milk. Concentrations of LO were increased, and the addition of thiocyanate was investigated to supplement the effect of the lactoperoxidase system against L. monocytogenes. When raw milk was inoculated with 2 log cfu/mL, 1.2 g/L LO alone and combined with sodium thiocyanate reduced ~0.8 log cfu/mL from the initial inoculum on d 7 of storage, whereas the control grew out to >1 log cfu/mL from the initial inoculum. Furthermore, in the higher inoculum, 1.2 g/L LO combined with sodium thiocyanate reduced L. monocytogenes counts from the initial inoculum by >1 log cfu/mL, whereas the control grew out 2 log cfu/mL from the initial inoculum. Results from this study suggest that LO is inhibitory against L. monocytogenes in UHT skim milk and in raw milk. Therefore, LO may be an effective treatment to prevent L. monocytogenes outgrowth, increase the safety of raw milk, and be used as an effective agent to prevent L. monocytogenes proliferation in fresh cheese and other dairy products. This enzymatic approach is a novel application to control the foodborne pathogen L. monocytogenes in dairy products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenna T Flynn
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Sarah M Kozak
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Marie R Lawton
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Samuel D Alcaine
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853.
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6
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Flynn B, deRiancho D, Lawton MR, Alcaine SD. Evaluation of Lactose Oxidase as an Enzyme-Based Antimicrobial for Control of L. monocytogenes in Fresh Cheese. Foods 2021; 10:1471. [PMID: 34201990 PMCID: PMC8307525 DOI: 10.3390/foods10071471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is a ubiquitous pathogen that can cause morbidity and mortality in the elderly, immune compromised, and the fetuses of pregnant women. The intrinsic properties of fresh cheese-high water activity (aW), low salt content, and near-neutral pH-make it susceptible to L. monocytogenes contamination and growth at various points in the production process. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of lactose oxidase (LO), a naturally derived enzyme, to inhibit the growth of L. monocytogenes in fresh cheese during various points of the production process. Lab-scale queso fresco was produced and inoculated with L. monocytogenes at final concentrations of 1 log CFU/mL and 1 CFU/100 mL. LO and LO sodium thiocyanate (TCN) combinations were incorporated into the milk or topically applied to the finished cheese product in varying concentration levels. A positive control and negative control were included for all experiments. When L. monocytogenes was inoculated into the milk used for the cheese-making process, by day 28, the positive control grew to above 7 log CFU/g, while the 0.6 g/L treatment (LO and LO + TCN) fell below the limit of detection (LOD) of 1.3 log CFU/g. In the lower inoculum, the positive control grew to above 7 log CFU/g, and the treatment groups fell below the LOD by day 21 and continued through day 28 of storage. For surface application, outgrowth occurred with the treatments in the higher inoculum, but some inhibition was observed. In the lower inoculum, the higher LO and LO-TCN concentrations (0.6 g/L) reduced L. monocytogenes counts to below the LOD, while the control grew out to above 7 log CFU/g, which is a >5 log difference between the control and the treatment. These results suggest that LO could be leveraged as an effective control for L. monocytogenes in a fresh cheese.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Samuel D. Alcaine
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA; (B.F.); (D.d.); (M.R.L.)
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Kruk M, Trząskowska M. Analysis of Biofilm Formation on the Surface of Organic Mung Bean Seeds, Sprouts and in the Germination Environment. Foods 2021; 10:foods10030542. [PMID: 33807767 PMCID: PMC7999400 DOI: 10.3390/foods10030542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to analyse the impact of sanitation methods on the formation of bacterial biofilms after disinfection and during the germination process of mung bean on seeds and in the germination environment. Moreover, the influence of Lactobacillus plantarum 299v on the growth of the tested pathogenic bacteria was evaluated. Three strains of Salmonella and E. coli were used for the study. The colony forming units (CFU), the crystal violet (CV), the LIVE/DEAD and the gram fluorescent staining, the light and the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) methods were used. The tested microorganisms survive in a small number. During germination after disinfection D2 (20 min H2O at 60 °C, then 15 min in a disinfecting mixture consisting of H2O, H2O2 and CH₃COOH), the biofilms grew most after day 2, but with the DP2 method (D2 + L. plantarum 299v during germination) after the fourth day. Depending on the method used, the second or fourth day could be a time for the introduction of an additional growth-limiting factor. Moreover, despite the use of seed disinfection, their germination environment could be favourable for the development of bacteria and, consequently, the formation of biofilms. The appropriate combination of seed disinfection methods and growth inhibition methods at the germination stage will lead to the complete elimination of the development of unwanted microflora and their biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Kruk
- Faculty of Human Nutrition, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Monika Trząskowska
- Food Hygiene and Quality Management, Department of Food Gastronomy and Food Hygiene, Institute of Human Nutrition Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence:
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8
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Fu Y, Jia Y, Fan J, Yu C, Yu C, Shen C. Induction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 into a viable but non-culturable state by high temperature and its resuscitation. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2020; 12:568-577. [PMID: 32783384 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.12877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Escherichia coli O157:H7, a causative agent of haemolytic uremic syndrome, can enter into a viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state in response to harsh stress. Bacteria in this state can retain membrane integrity, metabolic activity and virulence expression, which may present health risks. However, virulence expression and resuscitation ability of the VBNC state are not well understood. Here, we induced E. coli O157:H7 into a VBNC state by high temperature, which is commonly used to prevent the proliferation of pathogens in process of soil solarization, composting and anaerobic digestion of organic wastes. The virulence genes were highly expressed in the VBNC state and resuscitated daughter cells. The resuscitation of VBNC cells occurred after the removal of heat stress in Luria-Bertani medium. In addition, E. coli O157: H7 cells can leave the VBNC state and resuscitate with the clearance of protein aggregates. Notably, with the accumulation of protein aggregation and increased levels of reactive oxygen species, cells lost their ability to resuscitate. The results of this study not only can facilitate a better understanding of the health risks associated with the VBNC state but also have the potential to provide a theoretical basis for thermal disinfection processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulong Fu
- Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Yangyang Jia
- Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Jiahui Fan
- Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Chunna Yu
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 310036, China
| | - Chungui Yu
- Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Chaofeng Shen
- Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Water Pollution Control and Environmental Safety, Hangzhou, 310058, China
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9
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León Madrazo A, Segura Campos MR. Review of antimicrobial peptides as promoters of food safety: Limitations and possibilities within the food industry. J Food Saf 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anaí León Madrazo
- Facultad de Ingeniería Química Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán Mérida Yucatán Mexico
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10
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Decontamination of seeds destined for edible sprout production from Listeria by using chitosan coating with synergetic lysozyme-nisin mixture. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 235:115968. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.115968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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11
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Bahrami A, Moaddabdoost Baboli Z, Schimmel K, Jafari SM, Williams L. Efficiency of novel processing technologies for the control of Listeria monocytogenes in food products. Trends Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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12
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Hinojosa-Dávalos J, Arias-Rios EV, Varela-Hernández JJ, Cardona-López MA, Orozco-Muñiz R, Cabrera-Diaz E. Thermal and Chemical Treatments To Reduce Salmonella on Alfalfa ( Medicago sativa) and Broccoli ( Brassica oleracea var. italica) Seeds before and during the Sprouting Process: A Hurdle Approach. J Food Prot 2020; 83:82-88. [PMID: 31851547 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-19-272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Sprouts are vehicles of foodborne diseases caused by pathogens such as Salmonella. The aim of this study was to evaluate thermal and chemical treatments applied as a hurdle approach to reduce Salmonella in alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) seeds before and during their germination. Seeds, inoculated and then dried at 55°C for 48 h, were subjected to a chemical treatment and a thermal shock with (i) 75 mM caprylic acid at 70°C for 5 s, (ii) 0.04% CaO at 70°C for 5 s, or (iii) 1% H2O2 at 70°C for 5 s. After each treatment, seeds were immersed in water at 3°C for 5 s. Next, the imbibition process was carried out with 0.016% H2O2 at pH 3.0. Finally, the seeds were transferred to a rotary drum-type germinator and were sprayed with the same chemical solution that was applied before the imbibition process, for 20 s at intervals of 5 min for 40 min at 3 rpm. All chemical treatments reduced Salmonella at least 5 log CFU/g on both seeds. Germination rates between 90 and 93% were obtained after application of thermal and chemical treatments. Salmonella was not detected after the imbibition stage when caprylic acid and H2O2 treatments were applied. However, during the germination process of both seeds, Salmonella counts of >6 log CFU/g were obtained despite all treatments being applied at different stages of the sprouting process. These results demonstrated that thermal and chemical treatments used as a hurdle approach to control Salmonella on alfalfa and broccoli seeds significantly reduced the pathogen concentration on seeds >5 log but were ineffective to eliminate Salmonella and to control its growth during the sprouting process. The production of safe sprouts continues to be a major challenge for industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Hinojosa-Dávalos
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Centro Universitario de la Ciénega, Universidad de Guadalajara, Av. Universidad No. 1115, Ocotlán, Jalisco, Mexico 47820 (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9967-2266 [J.H.-D.])
| | | | - Juan José Varela-Hernández
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Centro Universitario de la Ciénega, Universidad de Guadalajara, Av. Universidad No. 1115, Ocotlán, Jalisco, Mexico 47820 (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9967-2266 [J.H.-D.])
| | - Marco Antonio Cardona-López
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Centro Universitario de la Ciénega, Universidad de Guadalajara, Av. Universidad No. 1115, Ocotlán, Jalisco, Mexico 47820 (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9967-2266 [J.H.-D.])
| | - Ruben Orozco-Muñiz
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Centro Universitario de la Ciénega, Universidad de Guadalajara, Av. Universidad No. 1115, Ocotlán, Jalisco, Mexico 47820 (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9967-2266 [J.H.-D.])
| | - Elisa Cabrera-Diaz
- Departamento de Salud Pública, Centro Universitario de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad de Guadalajara, Camino Ramón Padilla Sánchez 2100, Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico 45200 (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1970-2104 [E.C.-D.])
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Empirical "integrated disease management" in Ferrara during the Italian plague (1629-1631). Parasitol Int 2019; 75:102046. [PMID: 31887395 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2019.102046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Plague, a highly infective disease caused by Yersinia pestis (Proteobacteria: Enterobacteriales), ravaged Europe from 1347 over the course of more than 450 years. During the Italian Plague (1629-1631), the disease was rampaging in the entire Northern Italy down to Tuscany, but the city of Ferrara was relatively spared, in spite that the economic activities were maintained with highly affected cities, such as Milan, through the relevant salt commerce. The aim of the study is to evaluate the hygiene rules that were effective in preventing the spread of the plague in Ferrara in 1630, by examining historical documents and reports. According to these documents, a kind of empirical "integrated disease management" was carried out, using remedies including compounds with bactericidal, anti-parasite and repellent activity, and by technical strategies including avoidance of possible plague carriers. The anti-plague remedies and technical strategies used in ancient Ferrara are critically analysed using a multidisciplinary approach (pharmaceutic, medical, epidemiologic and entomological) and compared to current prevention protocols.
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14
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Microbial quality of raw and ready-to-eat mung bean sprouts produced in Italy. Food Microbiol 2019; 82:371-377. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2019.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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