Global transcriptomic response of Listeria monocytogenes during growth on cantaloupe slices

Effects of intrinsic and extrinsic growth factors on virulence gene expression of foodborne pathogens in vitro and in food model systems; a review

Since foodborne diseases are one of the major causes of human hospitalization and death, one of the main challenges to food safety is the elimination or reduction of pathogens from food products throughout the food production chain. Pathogens, such as Salmonella species, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium species, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter species, etc., enter the consumer's body through the consumption of contaminated food and eventually cause disease, disability, and death in humans. In particular, the expression of virulence genes of these pathogens in various food environments containing them has been repeatedly reported, which is a key issue for the survival and pathogenicity of the pathogen. Hence, in this review, the interventions to prevent and control foodborne diseases, such as the application of natural preservatives, redox potential, heat treatments, high-pressure processing, and gaseous atmosphere, are discussed based on the literature. Moreover, the effects of various environmental conditions on bacterial gene expression are comprehensively reviewed. In conclusion, the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on the growth and pathogenicity of bacteria are very complicated. The information obtained from the current study can be used to develop new control strategies, improve food safety, and ensure human health.

Catabolite control protein C contributes to virulence and hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress responses in Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes causes listeriosis, an infectious and potentially fatal disease of animals and humans. A diverse network of transcriptional regulators, including LysR-type catabolite control protein C (CcpC), is critical for the survival of L. monocytogenes and its ability to transition into the host environment. In this study, we explored the physiological and genetic consequences of deleting ccpC and the effects of such deletion on the ability of L. monocytogenes to cause disease. We found that ccpC deletion did not impact hemolytic activity, whereas it resulted in significant reductions in phospholipase activities. Western blotting revealed that the ΔccpC strain produced significantly reduced levels of the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin LLO relative to the wildtype F2365 strain. However, the ΔccpC mutant displayed no significant intracellular growth defect in macrophages. Furthermore, ΔccpC strain exhibited reduction in plaque numbers in fibroblasts compared to F2365, but plaque size was not significantly affected by ccpC deletion. In a murine model system, the ΔccpC strain exhibited a significantly reduced bacterial burden in the liver and spleen compared to the wildtype F2365 strain. Interestingly, the deletion of this gene also enhanced the survival of L. monocytogenes under conditions of H2O2-induced oxidative stress. Transcriptomic analyses performed under H2O2-induced oxidative stress conditions revealed that DNA repair, cellular responses to DNA damage and stress, metalloregulatory proteins, and genes involved in the biosynthesis of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids were significantly induced in the ccpC deletion strain relative to F2365. In contrast, genes encoding internalin, 1-phosphatidylinositol phosphodiesterase, and genes associated with sugar-specific phosphotransferase system components, porphyrin, branched-chain amino acids, and pentose phosphate pathway were significantly downregulated in the ccpC deletion strain relative to F2365. This finding highlights CcpC as a key factor that regulates L. monocytogenes physiology and responses to oxidative stress by controlling the expression of important metabolic pathways.

Galleria mellonella-intracellular bacteria pathogen infection models: the ins and outs

Galleria mellonella (greater wax moth) larvae are used widely as surrogate infectious disease models, due to ease of use and the presence of an innate immune system functionally similar to that of vertebrates. Here, we review G. mellonella-human intracellular bacteria pathogen infection models from the genera Burkholderia, Coxiella, Francisella, Listeria, and Mycobacterium. For all genera, G. mellonella use has increased understanding of host-bacterial interactive biology, particularly through studies comparing the virulence of closely related species and/or wild-type versus mutant pairs. In many cases, virulence in G. mellonella mirrors that found in mammalian infection models, although it is unclear whether the pathogenic mechanisms are the same. The use of G. mellonella larvae has speeded up in vivo efficacy and toxicity testing of novel antimicrobials to treat infections caused by intracellular bacteria: an area that will expand since the FDA no longer requires animal testing for licensure. Further use of G. mellonella-intracellular bacteria infection models will be driven by advances in G. mellonella genetics, imaging, metabolomics, proteomics, and transcriptomic methodologies, alongside the development and accessibility of reagents to quantify immune markers, all of which will be underpinned by a fully annotated genome.

The combination of thymol and cinnamaldehyde reduces the survival and virulence of Listeria monocytogenes on autoclaved chicken breast

AIMS

To reveal the antibacterial mechanism of the combination of thymol and cinnamaldehyde to Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 19115 on autoclaved chicken breast.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 19115 on autoclaved chicken breast was exposed to the stress of 125 μg/mL thymol and 125 μg/mL cinnamaldehyde, and transcriptome analysis was used to reveal the crucial antibacterial mechanism. According to the results, 1303 significantly differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified. Treated by thymol and cinnamaldehyde in combination, pyrimidine and branched-chain amino acids biosynthesis of L. monocytogenes were thwarted which impairs its nucleic acid biosynthesis and intracellular metabolism. The up-regulated DEGs involved in membrane composition and function contributed to membrane repair. Besides, pyruvate catabolism and TCA cycle were restrained which brought about the disturbance of amino acid metabolism. ABC transporters were also perturbed, for instance, the uptake of cysteine, D-methionine and betaine was activated, while the uptake of vitamin, iron and carnitine was repressed. Thus, L. monocytogenes tended to activate PTS, glycolysis, glycerol catabolism, and pentose phosphate pathways to obtain energy to adapt to the hostile condition. Noticeably, DEGs involved in virulence factors were totally down-regulated, including genes devoted to encoding flagella, chemotaxis, biofilm formation, internalin as well as virulence gene clusters.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of thymol and cinnamaldehyde is effective to reduce the survival and potential virulence of L. monocytogenes on autoclaved chicken breast.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY

This work contributes to providing theoretical information for the application and optimization of thymol and cinnamaldehyde in ready-to-eat meat products to inhibit L. monocytogenes.

Growth and Expression of Virulence Genes of Listeria monocytogenes during the Processing of Dry-Cured Fermented "Salchichón" Manufactured with a Selected Lactilactobacillus sakei

The effect of the dry-cured fermented processing of "salchichón" inoculated with a selected strain of Lactilactobacillus sakei (205) on the growth and transcriptional response of three virulence genes (plcA, hly, and iap) of Listeria monocytogenes was evaluated. For this, three different batches of "salchichón" were analyzed: batch B (inoculated only with L. sakei), batch L (inoculated only with L. monocytogenes), and batch L + B (inoculated with both microorganisms). Sausages were ripened for 90 days according to a traditional industrial process. The processing of "salchichón" provoked a reduction in L. monocytogenes counts of around 2 log CFU/g. The downregulation of the expression of the three genes was found at the end of ripening when the water activity (aw) of "salchichón" was <0.85 aw. The combined effect on the reduction in L. monocytogenes counts together with the downregulation in the expression of the virulence genes throughout the "salchichón" processing could be of great interest to control the hazard caused by the presence of this pathogenic bacterium.

Global transcriptomic response of Listeria monocytogenes exposed to Fingered Citron (Citrus medica L. var. sarcodactylis Swingle) essential oil

Listeria monocytogenes, which could cause severe disease of listeriosis, is one of the most concerned foodborne pathogens worldwide. Citrus medica L. var. sarcodactylis Swingle (Fingered Citron) is one of the citrus species cultivated in south China. Here, we investigated the efficacy of Fingered Citron essential oil (FCEO) against L. monocytogenes and explored the response of L. monocytogenes in the presence of FCEO using genome-wide transcriptome analysis. FCEO exhibited strong anti-listeria activity and obvious alterations of cell morphology were observed by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Moreover, GO analysis demonstrated many potential cell responses, including metabolic process, cellular process, single-organism process, cell part, membrane, catalytic activity, binding, and transporter activity. KEGG analysis suggests that L. monocytogenes respond and adapt by (1) increasing motility through the enhancement of flagella rotation; (2) promoting cell tumbles and re-orientating to escape from FCEO; (3) enhancing the uptake of carbohydrates from environment to gain more energy; (4) changing the uptake of several metallic cations, including iron, zinc, cobalt, and nickel. Our research contributes to the understanding of the adaptive responses of L. monocytogenes exposed to FCEO and provides novel insights for finding new targets of anti-listeria therapy.

Dynamic kinetic analysis of growth of Listeria monocytogenes in pasteurized cow milk

The objective of this study was to develop a dynamic model for predicting the growth of Listeria monocytogenes in pasteurized cow milk under fluctuating temperature conditions during storage and temperature abuse. Six dynamic temperature profiles that simulated random fluctuation patterns were designed to change arbitrarily between 4 and 30°C. The growth data collected from 3 independent temperature profiles were used to determine the kinetic parameters and construct a growth model combining the primary and secondary models using a 1-step dynamic analysis method. The results showed that the estimated minimum growth temperature and maximum cell concentration were 0.6 ± 0.2°C and 7.8 ± 0.1 log cfu/mL (mean ± standard error), with the root mean square error (RMSE) only 0.3 log cfu/mL for model development. The model and the associated kinetic parameters were validated using the data collected under both dynamic and isothermal conditions, which were not used for model development, to verify the accuracy of prediction. The RMSE of prediction was approximately 0.3 log cfu/mL for fluctuating temperature profiles, and it was between 0.2 and 1.1 log cfu/mL under certain isothermal temperatures (2-30°C). The resulting model and kinetic parameters were further validated using 3 growth curves at 4, 7, and 10°C arbitrarily selected from ComBase (www.combase.cc). The RMSE of prediction was 0.8, 0.4, and 0.5 log cfu/mL, respectively, for these curves. The validation results indicated the predictive model was reasonably accurate, with relatively small RMSE. The model was then used to simulate the growth of L. monocytogenes under a variety of continuous and square-wave temperature profiles to demonstrate its potential application. The results of this study showed that the model developed in this study can be used to predict the growth of L. monocytogenes in contaminated milk during storage.

Perinatal listeriosis patients treated at a maternity hospital in Beijing, China, from 2013-2018

Background

Listeriosis is a rare but severe foodborne infectious disease. Perinatal listeriosis is often associated with septicemia, central nervous system (CNS) infection, and serious adverse pregnancy outcomes (miscarriage and neonate death). Here we report the characteristics and outcomes of perinatal listeriosis cases treated over 6 years at Beijing Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital (BOGH), the largest maternity hospital in China.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed the records of laboratory-confirmed, pregnancy-associated listeriosis cases treated from January 1, 2013 to December 31, 2018. The clinical manifestations, laboratory results, perinatal complications and outcomes (post-natal follow-up of 6 months) were investigated.

Results

In BOGH, 12 perinatal listeriosis cases were diagnosed based on Listeria monocytogenes positive culture, including 10 single pregnancies and 2 twin pregnancies. The corresponding incidence of pregnancy-associated listeriosis was 13.7/100,000 deliveries. Among those cases, four pregnant women and four newborns had septicemia, and two of the neonates with septicemia also suffered CNS infection. All the maternal patients recovered. Two inevitable miscarriages and four fetal stillbirths occurred. Of the eight delivered newborns, six survived, and two died within 2 days from birth. None of the survivors had neurological sequelae during a 6-month follow-up. The overall feto-neonatal fatality rate was 57.1%; notably, this rate was 100% for infections occurring during the second trimester of pregnancy and only 14.3% for those occurring in the third trimester.

Conclusions

Perinatal listeriosis is associated with high feto-neonatal mortality, and thus, a public health concern. Additional large-scale studies are needed to strengthen the epidemiological understanding of listeriosis in China.

Virulence assessment of Listeria monocytogenes grown in different foods using a Galleria mellonella model

Various produce including cantaloupe, caramel-coated apples, and packaged salads, have been recognized in recent years as vehicles for listeriosis, a human foodborne disease caused by intracellular pathogen Listeria monocytogenes. Our knowledge regarding the role of these foods in L. monocytogenes virulence, however, is limited. Understanding their role in modulating L. monocytogenes virulence can be useful in risk assessments and for developing control measures. In this study, we employed the Galleria mellonella larvae model to evaluate virulence potential of fifteen clinical, environmental and food isolates of L. monocytogenes, related to three major outbreaks, after growth on different foods. The non-human pathogen Listeria innocua was also included in the panel. Strains were inoculated in parallel in 5ml of brain heart infusion (BHI) broth, and on the surfaces of cantaloupe and apple fragments (5g each) at about 10⁵ colony forming units (CFU)/ml/fragment. One set of inoculated broth and food fragments was incubated at 10°C for 5 days while the second set was kept at 25°C for 3 days. L. monocytogenes cells were recovered from the fruits and BHI, washed twice, re-suspended in saline, and used to inoculate G. mellonella larvae at final concentrations of 10⁶ and 10⁵ CFU/larva. The larvae were incubated at 37°C and monitored for mortality (LT₅₀—time taken to kill 50% of the larvae) and phenotypic changes over seven days. L. monocytogenes grown on cantaloupe and apple flesh surfaces resulted in higher virulence than when grown in BHI. L. monocytogenes infection at 10⁶ CFU/larvae resulted in an average LT₅₀ of ≤ 30, 36 and 47 hours on cantaloupe, apples and BHI, respectively. These results represent a 2.5–4-fold increased mortality compared with an LT₅₀ ≥120 hours in larvae infected with the same doses of L. innocua grown in corresponding matrices. Similar trends were also recorded with doses of about 10⁵ CFU /larvae.

Validation of an ampicillin selection protocol to enrich for mutants of Listeria monocytogenes unable to replicate on fresh produce

Several outbreaks of listeriosis have implicated fresh produce but genetic factors required for growth of Listeria monocytogenes on produce remain poorly characterized. Based on the fact that β-lactam antibiotics only kill bacterial cells that are growing, we hypothesized that ampicillin selection can enrich for L. monocytogenes mutants unable to grow on produce. For validation, we examined relative recovery of L. monocytogenes strain 2011L-2858 and its cold-sensitive mutant L1E4 following inoculation of cantaloupe rind fragments with 1:1 mixture of the strains and incubation at 4°C with or without ampicillin. Listeria monocytogenes from rind fragments inoculated with the mixed cultures and incubated in the presence of ampicillin were used to inoculate fresh rind fragments for a second round of enrichment. In the presence of ampicillin, the proportion of L1E4 increased from 55% on day 0 to 78% on day 14, with higher recovery (85% after 14 days) in the second round of enrichment. These data suggested that L1E4 was enriched on cantaloupe rind fragments while growing cells of the wildtype were killed by ampicillin. Application of this protocol to transposon mutant libraries from three L. monocytogenes strains yielded several mutants unable to grow on cantaloupe. Thus, ampicillin selection can facilitate discovery of genes essential for growth of L. monocytogenes on fresh produce.